LESSON ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE

1.1 Some Background Information About Greek; 1.2 Accents and Breathings; 1.3 Pronunciation Guide; 1.4 The Alphabet: Greek/English Equivalents, with pronunciation keywords; 1.5 Vowels; 1.6 Consonants; 1.7 Writing; 1.8 Punctuation; 1.9 Greek Words

LESSON TWO: THE ARTICLE; THE SECOND DECLENSION; THE PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION

2.1 The Greek Sentence; 2.2 Inflected Forms For Noun, Pronoun, and Adjective; 2.3 The Article; 2.4 Paradigms of the Article and Second Declension Nouns; 2.5 Inflection of Adjectives and Pronouns; 2.6 Prepositions; 2.7 The Verb; 2.8 Paradigms of the Present Indicative Active; 2.9 Word Order

LESSON THREE: FIRST DECLENSION, AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE

3.1 Complete Paradigms For The First Declension; 3.2 Feminine Nouns of the Second Declension; 3.3 Pronouns; 3.4 Clues From The Agreement of the Article and Adjectives; 3.5 The Present Imperative, Second Person Plural; 3.6 Time, Aspect, and Conjugation; 3.7 Compound Verbs; 3.8 Paradigms For the Imperfect of εἰμί and the Second Aorist Active; 3.9 The Verb Morph Slots;

LESSON FOUR: THE RELATIVE; THE ACTIVE VOICE

4.1 The Relative Pronoun; 4.2 The Rest of the Active Verb; 4.3 Aspect; 4.4 Mode; 4.5 Linguistic Modification Rules; 4.6 Double Morphs; 4.7 Guidelines on How To Decipher A Verb; 4.8 Using the Guidelines to Understand Verbs in the Greek N.T. Selections; 4.9 Notes For The Selections;

LESSON FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION

5.1 How To Find Your Way Through The Third Declension; 5.2 Third Declension Vowel Stems; 5.3 Third Declension Masculine and Feminine Consonant Stems; 5.4 Slightly Irregular Third Declension Masculine and Feminine Nouns; Neuter Nouns; 5.5 Third Declension Neuter Consonant Stems; 5.6 Learning the Third Declension?; 5.7 The Declension of Adjectives: First and Second Declension Pattern; 5.8 The Declension of Adjectives: First and Third Declension Pattern; 5.9 Notes Re The Greek New Testament Selections;

LESSON SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE

6.1 The Passive and Middle Voices of the Verb; 6.2 The Paradigm of the Middle Voice; 6.3 Points To Note; 6.4 The Future Indicative and The Other Modes of εἰμί; 6.5 The Paradigm of the Passive Voice; 6.6 Self-Testing Review; 6.7 Concerning The Second Aorist and The Imperfect; 6.8 Contract Verbs (Paradigms C1.2, C1.3 and C1.4); 6.9 The Reflexive Pronoun

LESSON SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; THE SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS

7.1 Corresponding Adjectives/Pronouns; 7.2 Corresponding Adverbs; 7.3 Formation of Adverbs: The Regular Pattern; 7.4 Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs; 7.5 Attributive and Predicative Use of Adjectives; 7.6 Suppletives, And Other Verbs of the Second; Aorist; 7.7 The Third Aorist, and The Third Conjugation; 7.8 Direct Flexions;

LESSON EIGHT: PARTICIPLES AND PREPOSITIONS

8.1 The Paradigm of the Participle; 8.2 The Periphrastic Participle; 8.3 The Adjectival Uses of the Participle; 8.4 The Adverbial Use of the Participle; 8.5 The Genitive Absolute; 8.6 The Ins and Outs of Prepositions; 8.7 The Cases, Meanings, and Frequencies of the Prepositions; 8.8 Interrelationships and Usages of the Prepositions; 8.9 The Reciprocal Pronoun

LESSON NINE: USING NOUNS AND THE ARTICLE

9.1 Investigating: The Case of the Flexible Noun; 9.2 Self-Testing Review; 9.3 The Meaning and Use of the Cases: The Nominative Case; 9.4 The Meaning and Use of the Cases: The Vocative Case; 9.5 Oblique Cases: The Accusative Case (Without Preposition); 9.6 Oblique Cases: The Genitive Case (Without Preposition); 9.7 Oblique Cases: The Dative Case (Without Preposition); 9.8 The Use of the Article

LESSON TEN: VERB CONJUGATION

10.1 Greek Verb Conjugations; 10.2 The Formation of the Tense Stems; 10.3 The Principal Parts of the Verb; 10.4 The Paradigms of the First Conjugation; 10.5 The Optative Mode; 10.6 Periphrastic Tenses; 10.7 The Infinitive and the Impersonal Verb; 10.8 Conditional Sentences; 10.9 Direct Flexions and Other Verb Terminology

THE WAY AHEAD

STAGE TWO: INTERMEDIATE GREEK COURSE

PART ONE: LESSONS ELEVEN TO TWENTY

PART TWO: LESSONS TWENTY-ONE TO THIRTY

UNITS OF THE TEXT OF MARK (FORTY UNITS)

THE APPENDICES

A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK

B: BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHERS USING THIS BOOK

Bl A Personal Word From Author to Teacher

B2 Course Teaching Patterns

B3 General Approach To Course Teaching

B4 Course Teaching Aims

B5 Course Teaching Methods

B6 Course Presentation

B7 Course Examinations

C: CONJUGATION

C0 The Greek Verb

C1 The First Conjugation

C2 The Second Conjugation

C3 The Third Conjugation

C4 Verbs With Direct Flexions

C5 Verbs Which Take Two Aspect Morphs

C6 Conspectus of the Three Conjugations

C7 Deponent Verbs

C8 Irregular Verbs

C9 Verb Groups For New Testament Verbs

D: DECLENSION

D0 The Greek Declension System

D1 The First Declension

D2 The Second Declension

D3 The Third Declension

D4 Adjectives

D5 Participles

D6 Pronouns

E: EXPLANATIONS IN PHONEMICS AND MORPHOLOGY

E1 The Component Elements of Language

E2 Phonemic Modification

E2.1 Elision; E2.2 Contraction; E2.3 Vowel Lengthening; E2.4 Compensatory Lengthening; E2.5 Syncopation; E2.6 Amalgamation; E2.7 Assimilation; E2.8 De-aspiration; E2.9 Crasis

E3 Morphology

E3.1 Morphs; E3.2 Allomorphs and Morphemes; E3.3 Root, Stem and Ending

E4 The Morphology of the Greek Verb

E4.0 Morph Slots of the Verb; E4.1 Slot 1: The Preposition; E4.2 Slot 2: Past Time; E4.3 Slot 3: Reduplication; E4.4 Slot 4: The Lexal; E4.5 Slot 5: Passive Voice; E4.6 Slot 6: Future Time; E4.7 Slot 7: Aspect; E4.8 Slot 8: The Specifier; E4.9 Slot 9: The Ending

E5 Morphological Analysis of the Greek Verb Form

E6 Accents

INTRODUCTION

HOW THIS COURSE OF STUDY WORKS

0.1 As the purpose of this Course is to equip the ordinary Christian with the ability to read and understand the Greek New Testament, the primary emphasis is upon learning to read Greek. There are English-into-Greek sentences provided for translation, to direct the attention of the student to how Greek handles specific grammatical situations; but the main emphasis is not upon translating from English into Greek (on the assumption that it is not really the aim of students to learn how to do this). Grammar is introduced and taught in this Course on an "explanation" basis — elements of grammar are explained which will enable the student to understand the sentences from the Greek New Testament that he is being given to work with. That is, you learn your grammar at the point where you will use it, and you then use it in the sentences given at the end of the Lesson in which you were introduced to it.

0.2 There is much less emphasis in the Course upon learning vocabulary than is usual in a beginning Greek Course. There are two reasons for this: First of all, it is because there is no actual word-for-word correspondence between Greek and English, but most words have a number of meanings the choice of which to a considerable extent is context-determined. For a new student of Greek to learn a single word of English as representing a particular word of Greek can therefore be misleading. Rather, the meaning of each Greek word is given for its particular context in a passage, and then these words are used and re-used in slightly varying contexts, in order to lay a foundation for the understanding of the "area of meaning" of each word. The second reason is a firm conviction on my part that, as a student has only a given amount of time available for spending on Greek study, he is much better employed in spending it, not in learning vocabulary lists, but in actually reading and grappling with a slab of Greek text, with an open word-list/vocabulary alongside. He will of course find that many word-meanings will "stick" in his memory, and he should encourage this. These word meanings will be reinforced and expanded as he reads more and more widely in Greek as the Course progresses.

0.3 This does not mean that learning vocabulary is unimportant but, rather, that words are better learnt in context than in isolation. Therefore make it your aim to master the meanings of words as you see them used — and the Assignments for each Lesson include making out Vocabulary Cards for the new words of that Lesson. By the time you complete the ten Lessons of the Beginner's Course you will have been introduced to the three hundred words which occur more than fifty times each in the Greek New Testament. These are listed in Appendix G of this book. It is very useful to go through this list at least once every week or so, and tick off in pencil those that have been learnt: this enables you to see for yourself how you are progressing. These three hundred words are referred to as "common New Testament words", and in the vocabulary that is listed for each of the Lessons of this book these common New Testament words are marked with an asterisk, *, to indicate that it is particularly worthwhile remembering them because of their frequency.

0.4 The Beginner's Course is self-contained and complete: no additional books are required. When you are ready to begin reading the Greek New Testament, you will need a good edition, and an Analysis or Key.

THESE ARE THE BASIC BOOKS YOU WILL NEED:

The Greek New Testament (United Bible Societies, Third or Fourth Edition)

Greek—English Dictionary of the New Testament (Ed. B.M. Newman, United Bible Societies)

(It is preferable to use the edition which has these two combined in one volume.)

An Analysis of the Greek New Testament (Zerwick and Grosvenor, Biblical Institute Press)

Or A Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament (Rienecker and Rogers, Zondervan)

11

12 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

THESE BOOKS ARE USEFUL:

Biblical Greek (M. Zerwick, Biblical Institute Press)

Reader's Greek—English Lexicon of the New Testament (S. Kubo, Andrew's University Press/ Zondervan)

The Morphology of Biblical Greek (William D. Mounce, Zondervan)

Greek—English Lexicon of the New Testament (Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich and Danker, University of Chicago Press)

0.5 Remember that the aim of the Course is not really to train you in translating the Greek New Testament into English, but to enable you to understand the meaning of the New Testament in Greek. Therefore, do not concentrate on the task of translation as an end in itself, but use your translation work as a means of reaching your real goal, which is to understand what the text says in Greek, and what it means by what it says. This is your first step towards putting it into practice yourself, and teaching its meaning and message accurately to others.

0.6 Paragraphs in the book which begin NOTE or IMPORTANT NOTE contain points which it is very important for readers to note; and paragraphs which begin RULE contain a point of grammar formulated as a Rule of the Greek language, which should then be learnt.

0.7 NOTE: # indicates a cross-reference to a paragraph in this book: # followed by a number refers to the Lesson with that number in the Beginner's Course; # followed by a letter refers to that Appendix in the Reference section. Thus #1.46 refers to the paragraph with that number, which will be found in Lesson One; and #C1.21 refers to the paragraph in Appendix C with that number. // is placed between references to parallel passages in the Gospels.

0.8 NOTE: When a new term is introduced and defined or explained, it is given in italics (see for example in #1.9 and #2.1). The meaning of the new term should be learnt at that point.

0.9 IMPORTANT NOTE: Under no circumstances ever write an English translation above any of the Greek sentences in this book — this would restrict your later understanding to what you had learnt at the time that you wrote out that translation. (But you may of course photocopy or copy out the sentences you are working on, and put on that copy an interlinear rendering of the words, as an intermediate step while you are engaged in working out the meaning of those sentences.)

ABBREVIATIONS

These abbreviations are used in the grammatical notes at the end of each Lesson:

A or acc accusative act active adj adjective adv adverb aor aorist C or conjg conjugation conj conjunction D declension D or dat dative dep deponent f or fem feminine fut future

G or gen genitive impf imperfect impv imperative indecl indeclinable indic indicative inf infinitive L Lesson/Lengthened m or masc masculine mid middle n or neut neuter N or nom nominative P or pl plural pass passive

pf or perf perfect pers person plpf pluperfect prep preposition pres present ptc participle refl reflexive S or sg singular subj subject subjv subjunctive V or voc vocative Ø zero morph

STAGE ONE: BEGINNER'S GREEK COURSE

LESSON ONE

THE GREEK LANGUAGE

1.1 SOME BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT GREEK

1.11 Some hundreds of years before the time of Christ, the country now called Greece consisted of a number of separate city-states. The people of these states shared a common culture and a common language, though with some differences of dialect from one region to another. In the centuries before Christ's birth, Attic (the dialect of Athens) had become the main literary form of the language, and this is what is known now as "Classical Greek". Through the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek then became the official language of most of the Middle East, and was used as the language of trade, learning, and administration throughout the whole of his Macedonian Empire.

1.12 During this process, however, the literary form of Attic became broken down into a somewhat simpler and less rigid pattern of grammar, and it absorbed words and forms from other Greek dialects and also from other languages (including Latin). This colloquial form of Greek is known as "Hellenistic Greek", or koine ("common") Greek.2 In the First Century AD koine Greek was spoken and understood throughout Palestine and around the entire Mediterranean basin, as well as much further afield in the Roman Empire and beyond. At this time Rome ruled the civilized world, and Latin was the official language of government; but Greek continued as the common language of everyday activity and communication. It is illustrative of the situation at the time that the inscription on the Cross (see John 19:20) was written in Aramaic (the local language in Judea), Latin (the official language of government), and Greek (the common language that just about everyone could read).

1.13 It is highly probable that Jesus gave much of his teaching in Greek, and we may well have in the Gospels a great deal of material that is not in fact a translation from Aramaic into Greek but a record of Christ's actual words in Greek.' Thus koine Greek naturally became the language in which the New Testament was written, as it was the ideal vehicle for enabling God's message to reach the greatest readership. Even the Epistle to the Hebrews was written in Greek, not Aramaic, and the Epistle to the Romans was written in Greek, not Latin.

1.14 As a result of a law passed in Attica in 403 BC4, there came to be 24 letters in the alphabet of Athens, and thus of Classical, New Testament, and indeed modern Greek. In ancient times and across various dialects, there had been other letters representing the sounds of Greek speech. As pronunciation changed over the centuries, so did spelling. Three letters, koppa, sampi and digamma survive only as numbers.' The first two are variants of kappa ("k") and sigma ("s") respectively. Digamma was a "w" or "v" sound, which dropped out of Greek pronunciation but has left behind a few peculiarities in the words in which it used to occur — we look at these in later Lessons.

1.15 The common form of writing used in the First Century is called UNCIAL, and this was replaced in the Ninth/Tenth Centuries by an alternative style called cursive or "running" writing.' The cursive style is used now for all printing and writing, whilst the uncial letters function (with slight variations) as capital letters.

1.16 NOTE: In the standard printed editions of the Greek New Testament, capital letters are used for:

(a) proper nouns (the names of people, places or things, like "Jesus", "Bethlehem", "Jordan"),

(b) to mark the beginning of a paragraph, and

(c) at the beginning of direct speech (that is, when the actual words which someone spoke are being quoted).

Apart from these circumstances, a sentence does not begin with a capital. (Some editors of editions of the Greek New Testament may differ slightly from this convention, by using capitals for sub-paragraphs or not using them for direct speech.) We can see then that capitals are relatively infrequent in Greek.

1.17 During the koine Greek period (330 BC to 330 AD), some of the sounds were pronounced differently at different times and places (compare similar differences in the pronunciation of English today in various parts of the world). Thus there is a degree of uncertainty about the way to pronounce some letters, especially the vowels.' In cursive writing, small marks called accents were placed above one of the vowels of each word, as a guide to pronunciation; unfortunately, the key to the meaning of this pronunciation system has been lost.

1.18 In learning and using New Testament Greek today, we are not going to attempt to pronounce words in the way that a First Century speaker would have done - indeed, this would hardly be possible, because (as we have seen) there was no uniform way of pronouncing the language but there was some diversity of pronunciation during the Hellenistic period. Instead, a standardized pronunciation system is adopted which is indeed based on how Greek sounds were pronounced but which is also intended as an aid to memorization.8 Even in this regard, however, there are variations in the pronunciation of New Testament Greek which will be found in its use today.

1.19 The pronunciation scheme followed in this book is a common one which is in current use. It adopts pronunciations which were used during the Hellenistic period and also takes account of how words are spelt and how they are best pronounced by students of New Testament Greek today, with the goal of having a phonemic system, that is, "one letter, one pronunciation". Thus the pronunciation scheme adopted in this book (which is also found in numerous other Grammars of New Testament Greek) is superior on these grounds to the alternatives, particularly because it has the practical advantage that (with a minor exception) no sound has more than one spelling: so that if you can remember the pronunciation of a word this will assist you to remember the spelling.

1.2 ACCENTS AND BREATHINGS

1.21 When you look at a page of the printed Greek New Testament, you will notice that the letters of the Greek alphabet are different from those of English, and that almost every Greek word has one or more little marks or signs written above one (or more) of the letters. The signs are only written above the Greek letter for "r" if it comes first in a word, or above vowels. These signs are of two completely different types, accents and breathings.

1.22 Most Greek words carry an accent, which will be written above one of its vowels.⁹ This accent will be one of three kinds: an acute (written ´), a grave (pronounced to rhyme with "carve", written `), or a circumflex (really a combination of the acute and grave, written ^, but in some printers' typefaces it will be printed as ῀ or - as in this book ῀ ). In this book, the Greek words are given with their accents, because they are printed with accents in the text of the New Testament which the reader of this book will be learning to use. There are a small number of instances where accents are useful for the student, by serving to distinguish between word pairs which are identical apart from their accent, or by assisting with pronunciation - attention will be drawn to these instances when they are encountered. Apart from these special instances, accents serve no real purpose for those starting Greek study, and can be ignored. (The general principles of accentuation are set out in #E6, which is reached at the end of the Intermediate Course.)

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 15

1.23 When a Greek word begins with a vowel or the letter "r", that initial vowel or "r" will be written with a mark over it which is called a breathing. There are two kinds of breathings, which look very much like English single opening and closing quotation marks (or "inverted commas"), ῾ and ᾿.

1.24 If the breathing is curled to the right, like an opening inverted comma, ῾, then it is called a rough breathing, and it is pronounced as an "h" in front of the word.

1.25 If the breathing is curled to the left, like a closing inverted comma, ᾿, then it is called a smooth breathing, and it simply indicates that the word is not pronounced with an "h" in front of it.

1.26 Thus ὀσ- would be pronounced "os", but ὁσ- is pronounced "hos"; and ἐκ- is pronounced "ek", but ἑκ is pronounced "hek". NOTE: "οσ-" or "εκ-" could not exist, because without a breathing over the initial vowel you would not know whether or not the word started with an "h". The letters upsilon (υ, "u") and rho (ρ, "r"), always carry a rough breathing when they are initial; all other initial vowels may have either a smooth or a rough breathing.

1.27 If a word begins with two vowels which are pronounced together (this is called a diphthong), then the rough or smooth breathing will be placed over the second vowel of the diphthong. Examples: οἰκία ("oikia"); οἱ ("hoi"). If a word begins with two vowels which are not pronounced together as a diphthong, then the breathing will be placed over the first vowel. Example: ἐᾶτε, "e-a-te".

1.28 An accent can fall on the same vowel as a breathing. If it is an acute or a grave accent, the breathing comes first, followed by the accent: thus, ", ". If a breathing and a circumflex occur together, the circumflex is placed over the top of the breathing: thus, or . A breathing is placed in front of a vowel which is a capital letter. Thus, the breathing is placed:

(a) over the top of an initial vowel if it is a small letter. Examples: ἰδού, ἴδε, ὁδός, ἕκτος

(b) in front of an initial vowel if it is a capital letter. Examples: Ἀδάμ ("Adam"), Ὅτι ("Hoti").

(c) over the second letter of an initial diphthong, whether or not the first letter is a capital. Examples: εἰς ("eis"), οἶκος ("oikos"), οἰκία ("Oikia").

(d) over the first letter of two vowels which do not make a diphthong, or in front if the first letter is a capital. Examples: ἑόρακα ("he-oraka"), Ἐᾶτε ("E-a-te").

1.29 THE BREATHINGS RULE: Automatically note the breathing when you come to words beginning with a vowel, and be sure that you NEVER drop your aitches but always pronounce a rough breathing when it occurs, and always put the correct breathing over an initial vowel or diphthong when writing Greek words.

1.3 PRONUNCIATION GUIDE

1.31 TURN NOW to Appendix #A1 and work through the Pronunciation Guide and exercises which are given there.

1.32 These exercises provide a progressive introduction to the recognition and pronunciation of all the letters of the Greek Alphabet. The exercises will be found helpful both for Greek classes and for students learning Greek on their own.

1.33 After practising these exercises, return to this point in the Lesson.

16 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

1.4 THE ALPHABET:

GREEK/ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS, WITH PRONUNCIATION KEYWORDS

1.41

GREEK	ENGLISH	GREEK
NAME LETTER ἄλφα alpha βῆτα beta γάμμα gamma δέλτα delta ἔ ψιλόν epsilon ζῆτα zeta ἦτα eta θῆτα theta ἰῶτα iota κάππα kappa λάμβδα lambda μῦ mu νῦ nu ξῖ xi ὂ μικρόν omicron πῖ pi ῥῶ rho σίγμα sigma ταῦ tau ὖ ψιλόν upsilon φῖ phi χῖ khi ψῖ psi ὦ μέγα omega α Α β Β γ Γ δ Δ ε Ε ζ Ζ η Η θ Θ ι Ι κ Κ λ Λ μ Μ ν Ν ξ Ξ ο Ο π Π ρ Ρ σ,ς Σ τ Τ υ Υ φ Φ χ Χ ψ Ψ ω Ω	EQUIV. KEYWORD a along, father b boil g,ng got, along d feud e panguin dz adze ē there th throw i in, ski k ski l boil m men n in x six o got p put r throw s six t put u put(truth) ph photograph kh/ch loch, Bach ps glimpse ō throw	EXAMPLES MEANING ἄνθρωπος man, human being βάλλω I throw γῆ earth, land δύναμις power, ability ἔργον work, deed, action ζωή life ἡμέρα day θεός God ἴδιος one's own καρδία heart λόγος word, message μόνος only, alone νόμος law ξύλον wood, tree ὅλος whole, complete προφήτης prophet ῥῆμα word, object σάββατον sabbath τόπος place ὑποκριτής hypocrite φωνή voice, sound χρόνος time ψυχή soul, life ὥρα hour, time

* Common Greek words — see #0.3.

1.42 The Greek sounds represented by the letters are called phonemes. That is to say, phonemes are to speech what letters are to writing. (Phonemes are described in detail in #E1 and #E2.)

1.43 The third letter of the alphabet, gamma, pronounced "g" as in "got", also has a second function in Greek. When the letter nu, "n", occurs in front of any of the phonemes made at the palate (the phonemes γ, κ, χ, and ξ), it is pronounced "ng" and is written using the letter gamma instead of nu. Thus ἐγχρίω consists of ἐν joined with χρίω, and is pronounced "eng-chrio". (In English, "n" in front of a palatal is also pronounced as "ng", as in "anger", "ankle", "anchor", "anxious", "anxiety".) When gamma is used in this way, and given this pronunciation, it is actually quite a different letter from "normal" gamma. When it is to be pronounced in this way it can be called enga (ἔγγα).¹¹ Practise pronouncing these examples of the use of enga:

ἐγγύς, ὄγκος, ἄγγελος, ἀγκάλη, ἄγκυρα, ἐγγίζω, ἐγχρίω, ἐγκρίνω, τυγχάνω, ἐγγράφω, ἐγκακέω, ἐγκαλέω, ἐγκάθετος, ἐλέγχω, σάλπιγξ, φάραγξ

1.44 When the letter iota begins a word and is followed by a vowel — as indeed it is in its own name — then it is pronounced as "y". So iota, the name of this letter, is pronounced "yo-ta" (rhyming with "quota"). Ἰησοῦς, "Jesus", is pronounced "Yair-sous", rhyming with "their use". Similarly, upsilon, υ, is pronounced as "w" when it comes in front of a vowel (as in υἱός, son).

Because they have some of the functions of a vowel and some of those of a consonant, these two phonemes, and rho, ρ, can be described as semi-vowels.

1.45 When the letter rho begins a word, it is written ῥ, "rh", but the "h" should not be pronounced. (Compare the "silent h" at the beginning of English words which have come from the Greek, such as "rhapsody", "rhetoric", "rheumatism", "rhyme", "rhythm", and numerous others.) If a double rho occurs in a word it may be found with a smooth breathing written over the first rho and a rough breathing over the second one. For example, ἐρρήθησαν (Galatians 3:16) may sometimes (especially in older editions of the Greek text) be found printed as ἐῤῥήθησαν.

1.46 NOTE: The syllables of a Greek word are pronounced so as to begin with a consonant. Thus γράφω is not pronounced γράφ-ω but γρά-φω. Similarly ὅλος is not pronounced ὅλ-ος but ὅ-λος. Break up other words in the same way. Where there are two consonants between vowels, start the syllable with the second one, thus: ἄν-θρω-πος, ὑπο-κρι-τής. Similarly divide up the pronunciation of a double letter; thus ἔξω is pronounced ἔκ-σω.

1.47 LEARN:

(a) The Greek alphabet (from the Greek column), in the correct order, with the correct pronunciation, as shown by the English keywords.

(b) The English keyword(s) for each letter. Each keyword contains the English equivalent of the Greek letter you are learning, and the keyword gives that letter the pronunciation that it has in Greek. Knowing these keywords can assist you greatly with your pronunciation in the initial stages of your study of Greek.

1.48 NOTE: When going through the Vocabulary of each new Lesson, always carefully pronounce each word aloud. When commencing work on each Selection from the Greek New Testament, read aloud that Selection in Greek first of all. This care about pronunciation, and practising reading out aloud, is exceedingly important. It is no harder to get into the habit of pronouncing a word correctly instead of incorrectly. An incorrect pronunciation will very easily mislead you into an incorrect spelling and possible confusion about words and forms. On the other hand, if you harness your eye and ear together, so that they operate in conjunction, each will aid and reinforce the other in the learning process. In consequence you will learn your work more quickly, more effectively, and more permanently.

1.5 VOWELS

1.51 Vowels are sounds (phonemes) that you make by the shape that you give to your mouth while you are breathing out air from your lungs.

1.52 There are seven vowels in the Greek alphabet, two of which are short, two of which are long, and three of which may be either short or long. These vowels (with their keywords) are:

Short Vowels	Long Vowels
α (along)	α (father)
ε (penguin)	η (there)
ι (in)	ι (ski)
ο (got)	ω (throw)
υ (put)	υ (truth)

1.53 Short vowels followed by ρ and a consonant can be pronounced as in English. Thus: Short α followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "ar", as in καρδία, "kar-dia". Short ε followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "er", as in ἔργον, "er-gon". Short ο followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "or", as in ὀργή, pronounced "or-gair".

1.54 Two vowels, ι and υ, can combine with each of the short vowels and with each other into a vowel-pair which has a distinct pronunciation, and which is called a diphthong (pronounced diff-thong). There are thus these seven diphthongs:

DIPHTHONG	KEYWORD	GREEK EXAMPLES	MEANINGS
αι	aisle	*αἰών	age, world
ει	eight	*εἰρήνη	peace
οι	boil	*οἶκος	house, household
υι	penguin/suite	*υἱός	son
αυ	Strauss	*αὐτός	he, self, same
ευ	feud	*εὐαγγέλιον	gospel
ου	group	*οὐρανός	heaven

NOTE: υι is pronounced as in "penguin" if ι is short, and as in "suite" if ι is long — as is usually the case. However, this diphthong is not very common.

1.55 Practise your pronunciation of the Greek diphthongs with these words:

(a) καί, ναί, παῖς, καιρός, χαίρω, δίκαιος, παιδίον, δαιμόνιον, αἰών, αἷμα, αἰτέω

(b) εἰ, εἰς, εἷς, δεῖ, εἴτε, εἶδον, εἶπον, εἰμί, τρεῖς, ἡμεῖς, πλείων, πείθω, σπείρω, εἰρήνη, ἐκεῖνος, ἀλήθεια

(c) οἶδα, οἶκος, οἰκία, λοιπός, ποιμήν, πλοῖον, κατοικέω, ποιέω, ὅμοιος, ἀνοίγω

(d) υἱός, λελυκυῖα

(e) αὐτός, αὐτή, αὕτη, αὐταί, αὗται, αὐγή, αὐλός, αὔριον, αὐξάνω, σεαυτοῦ, σταυρόω, θησαυρός

(f) εὖ, εὐθύς, πιστεύω, βασιλεύς, εὐαγγέλιον, δεύτερος, ψεῦδος, εὐλογέω, εὐχαριστέω, εὑρίσκω, εὐαγγελίζω, πνεῦμα, γραμματεύς

(g) οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ, οὐχί, οὖν, οὐδέ, οὐκέτι, οὐρανός, οὗτος, ποῦ, πούς, νοῦς, ἰδού, ὅπου, δοῦλος, ἀκούω, ἐξουσία

1.56 IOTA SUBSCRIPT: The long vowels (α, η, and ω) can also combine with ι, and the iota is then written subscript, i.e. below the main vowel, as ᾳ, ῃ and ῳ. A vowel is pronounced the same with iota subscript as without it. NOTE: As with the breathing, iota subscript is part of the spelling of a word and must never be omitted in writing a word in which it occurs.

1.57 OTHER VOWELS TOGETHER: In all other cases where vowels occur together they do not form a vowel combination but are each pronounced separately; e.g., ὄγδοος, "eighth"; κύριε, "sir"; Βηθλέεμ, "Bethlehem". (Notice that it is not possible to use a rough breathing in the middle of a word to give an "h" sound, so the "h" of "Bethlehem" is simply omitted.)

1.58 LEARN the seven diphthongs, together with the English keyword(s) for each diphthong.

Each keyword contains the English letters corresponding with those in the diphthong you are learning, and the keyword gives that diphthong the pronunciation that it has in Greek. (There is

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 19

actually no English word which contains the right pronunciation of "au" corresponding to the Greek, so the name "Strauss" has been used because most people will know of this composer. The αυ sound of Greek is usually written in English as "ou", as in "cloud", or "ow", as in "crowd".) Knowing these keywords can assist you greatly with your pronunciation in the initial stages of your study of Greek.

1.59 It is essential to become completely fluent as quickly as possible in reading the Greek letters, and pronouncing words correctly. The following passage from Luke 14:27-28 should be read and reread out aloud until correct pronunciation is automatic, and complete fluency is attained — it contains all 24 letters of the Greek alphabet:

Καὶ ὅστις οὐ βαστάζει τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἔρχεται ὀπίσω μου, οὐ δύναται εἶναί μου μαθητής. Τίς γὰρ ἐξ ὑμῶν, ὁ θέλων πύργον οἰκοδομῆσαι, οὐχὶ πρῶτον καθίσας ψηφίζει τὴν δαπάνην, εἰ ἔχει τὰ εἰς ἀπαρτισμόν;

1.6 CONSONANTS

1.61 Consonants are sounds (phonemes) that you make by interfering with the smooth flow of air from your lungs when you breathe out. Consonants can be classified according to how you interfere with the flow of escaping air (this is called the manner of articulation of the consonant), and where you interfere with the flow of escaping air (called the place of articulation).

1.62 There are three possible places of articulation: at the lips (producing sounds that are called labials), or at the teeth, using the tongue (producing dentals), or at the palate, again using the tongue (producing palatals).

1.63 The manner of articulation can be either to stop the flow of air altogether for a moment (producing a stop consonant) or to restrict the flow of air without stopping it, causing friction while the sound continues (and thus producing the continuants).

1.64 The stop consonants can be made either with or without the use of your vocal chords, so that they will be either voiced or unvoiced. It is also possible to put your mouth into position for making one of the stop consonants and to make an "h" sound there: this will give you three aspirated sounds, one aspirate for each "place" position in the mouth. The three Greek aspirates were originally stop consonants. Consequently, when they interact with following phonemes (sounds) they usually behave like (and therefore are grouped with and treated as) stops.

1.65 The continuants can be released either through the mouth or the nose. If the sound is released through the nose, this produces the three sounds called nasal liquids, one for each of the three "place" positions, labial (at the lips, giving "m"), palatal (at the palate, giving "ng"), and dental (at the back of the teeth, giving "n").

1.66 There are also two "liquid" sounds which can be made in the mouth, the oral liquids ("1" and "r"). Rho, ρ, is both an oral liquid and a semi-vowel — at times it functions as a consonant, and at times as a vowel. It is therefore listed twice in the following table.

1.67 Other oral phonemes one can make are a hissing noise (called a sibilant, the "s" sound, if unvoiced, and the "z" sound, if voiced). A sibilant can be added to a stop consonant in each "place" position: which will give you the three double consonants, ψ, ξ, and ζ — but note that two of these, ψ and ξ are unvoiced, and ξ is voiced.

1.68 Zeta, ζ, functioned in New Testament times as "z", the voiced equivalent of sigma, σ (for example, in transliterations from Hebrew such as Ναζαρέτ, "Nazareth"), and also (more frequently) as the double letter "dz". It is listed in the following table in two places: as a sibilant (the voiced equivalent of σ) and again as a dental in the "double letter" line, since it functions in the language in both ways. In early times zeta had two pronunciations, as zd, and as dz, reflecting the two sources from which it developed. Of these alternatives the pronunciation adopted and recommended here is dz, paralleling the labial double letter ψ and the palatal ξ.⁷

1.69 The Greek consonants can be set out in a table which shows their manner and place of articulation and all their other features.

MANNER OF ARTICULATION		PLACE OF ARTICULATION
STOPS: Unvoiced   Voiced   Aspirated   Double CONTINUANTS: Nasal Liquids   Oral Liquids   Semi-vowels   Sibilants SPECIAL:		Labials Palatals Dentals π κ τ β γ (gamma) δ φ χ θ ψ ξ ζ μ γ ν ρ,λ υ ι ρ σ,ζ πτ σσ

The "special" double combinations πτ and σσ are included here for the sake of completeness, and will be explained in due course. At this stage it is only necessary to note them.

NOTE: SEEK TO UNDERSTAND this table now, and why the different phonemes are listed in a particular classification — you will frequently find it very helpful to know which consonants are labials, palatals and dentals. We will refer back to it from time to time because the place of articulation affects how words behave when different endings etc. are added to them.

1.7 WRITING

1.71 WRITING GREEK: The written form of Greek at which you should aim is a style similar to that of the Greek printed characters, but without any of its ornateness. Aim at simplicity, clarity, and ease of recognition — avoid frills and flourishes. Practice writing the cursive (lower-case) characters as they are given here:

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 21

1.72 NOTE THAT: β, δ, ζ, θ, λ, and ξ, and these only, are double-height lowercase letters (though the strokes of φ and ψ go to double height); THAT the two strokes of χ cross on or just above the line; THAT the tails of ζ, ξ, and ς go below the line, as do the stems or legs of β, γ, η, μ, ρ, φ, χ and ψ. All capital letters are of uniform double height, and sit upon the line.

1.73 TRANSCRIBING INTO ENGLISH: English words derived from Greek are usually spelt with the corresponding English equivalent letters. But note that Greek chi (χ) comes into English as "ch" (as in "Christ") and not as "x", which is ξ. When upsilon (υ) is long it comes into English as "u"; but usually it is short and transliterates as the vowel "y" (as in "hypocrite"). The diphthong ου comes into English as "u" (as in "uranus", "Luke", and "Jesus"). The diphthong ευ is still "eu" in English before a consonant ("Eucharist"), but "ev" before a vowel ("evangelist"). The Greek γγ (i.e. enga plus gamma — see #1.43) becomes "ng" in English ("angel"); κ comes across into English as "k" when it is taken directly from the Greek, and as "c" when it has come via Latin. Be careful to distinguish the Greek capitals Ρ, Χ, Η and Υ from their English look-alikes.

1.74 THE WORD ENDINGS RULE: All Greek words end either in a vowel or else in ν, ρ or ς (including ψ and ξ). The only exceptions are the words ἐκ ("out of") and οὐκ/οὐχ ("not"), which are always pronounced with the word which follows; and foreign proper names (for example, Ἀβραάμ, Βηθλέεμ). Whenever the inflectional changes that take place in a word bring any other consonant to the end of that word, then that consonant is dropped.

1.75 MOVABLE NU AND MOVABLE SIGMA: Numbers of words which end in -εν or -ιν may drop the -ν, especially when followed by a word beginning with a consonant, without any punctuation between these two words. (Thus: the Greek word for "is" can be written ἐστίν or ἐστί.) This -ν is known as "movable nu". Similarly, ἐξ, "out of", and three other less common words drop their final sigma phoneme before a following consonant. That is, they have a "movable sigma": ἐξ thus becomes ἐκ before a consonant. (Note that is made up of the amalgamation of κ and ς.)

1.8 PUNCTUATION

1.81 PUNCTUATION MARKS: There are six punctuation marks in Greek:

(a) , The same as the English comma.

(b) . The same as the English full stop, or, period.

(c) · The high point — similar to the English semicolon and colon.

(d) ; The Greek question mark — do not confuse this with our semicolon.

(e) ' The Greek apostrophe, similar to the smooth breathing in appearance, which is used (as in English, in words such as "can't", "he's") to indicate an elision, that is, where a letter has dropped out. Its use will be explained in due course. Examples: δ’ ἂν (Mark 3:29) for δὲ ἂν; ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ (Mark 1:42) for ἀπὸ αὐτοῦ; ἀλλ’ ὁ (John 1:33) for ἀλλὰ ὁ.

(f) ¨ The diaeresis, which is used (as in English, in a word such as "naïve") where two vowels which normally combine to form a diphthong are to be pronounced separately. For example, ἀϊδίοις, βαΐον, Ἠσαΐας, ἰχθύϊ, προϋπῆρχεν.

1.82 LATE USE: This punctuation was NOT used in the earliest, uncial, manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, where in fact the practice of the time was to run all the words together without a space between them. Punctuation was later incorporated in cursive writing and is used today in all printed editions of the Greek New Testament.'² NOTE that as there was no punctuation in the original manuscripts, this has been added by later editors.

22 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

1.83 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: If you know Greek, you will therefore be aware that the punctuation in the printed text of the Greek New Testament reflects the judgement of the editors. Therefore at a number of points it is a matter of interpretation as to whether a particular phrase, clause, or sentence is a question or a statement. For example, are Romans 8:33b and 8:34b statements or questions? — the Greek itself does not indicate which it is, the only difference being one of punctuation. Romans 8:33-34 reads (NRSV), "Who will bring any charge against God's elect? It is God who justifies. Who is to condemn? It is Christ Jesus, who died, yes, who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who indeed intercedes for us." But the second part of each verse could very well be taken as a question (the NRSV gives this possibility as a marginal reading for verse 34). Seeing these sentences as being questions is in line with the whole of the rest of the context of 8:31-35, all of the other sentences of which are taken as questions by translators. Taking these verses this way underlines the impossibility of the thought that the One who justifies, the One who saves and intercedes for us, would bring a charge against us or condemn us: "Who will bring any charge against God's elect? Will God do this, when he is the One who justifies? Who is to condemn? Is it Christ Jesus [who will do this when he is the One] who died, yes, who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who indeed intercedes for us?"

1.84 DIRECT SPEECH: Greek has no quotation marks. How then can we know when someone's actual words are being quoted? The beginning of direct speech is usually indicated by the use of an initial capital (see #1.16). Additionally, to indicate the beginning of direct speech the author may use the word ὅτι (which is thus equivalent to English opening inverted commas). But this word also means "that" and "because"; when an author uses it to indicate the beginning of direct speech, we will recognize this because in our printed edition of the New Testament (and in this present book) the next word will begin with a capital letter. The end of direct speech is often indicated by the words which follow it being ὁ δὲ ..., which mean, "and he ..." (referring to the other person in the conversation); and similarly ἡ δὲ ... ("and she . ..") for the feminine and οἱ δὲ ... ("and they") for the plural. But in many places in the New Testament there remain uncertainties as to whether something is a quotation or direct speech, or not, and as to where direct speech ends. [Two examples from John 3: it is uncertain whether what Jesus is saying to Nicodemus concludes at verse 13 (as in the Good News Bible), or verse 15 (as in the RSV) or verse 21 (as in the NIV, NRSV, and others); it is also uncertain whether what John the Baptist is saying concludes at verse 30 (GNB, RSV, NRSV) or verse 36 (Phillips, Jerusalem, NW).]

1.9 GREEK WORDS

1.91 Greek words consist of two kinds, the "changing" and the "unchanging". The "unchanging" words remain the same every time they are used. These words have the grammatical names (which will be explained next Lesson) "conjunctions", "prepositions", "adverbs", "particles", "negatives", and "the infinitive". The "changing" words take different forms to indicate all the different kinds of grammatical information which the text is telling us. "Changing" words are "nouns", "pronouns", "adjectives", "verbs", "participles", and "the article" (these are all called "parts of speech", and these various terms will be explained next Lesson).

1.92 Many Greek words consist of two or more parts or segments, with each segment of the word conveying a particular "piece" or "unit" of information. Each such segment of a word is called a morph¹³, and a morph is described and named according to the information that it gives. Thus the "lexical part" of an inflected word (that is, the part that carries the lexical or dictionary meaning of the word) can be described as the lexical morph, or lexal¹⁴. The changes which take place in a word are called inflection. An inflected word consists of a lexal together with various "additional" morphs (technically known as affixes) which give the reader grammatical information. The lexal generally remains the same in the different forms of an inflected word, while the affixes change

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 23

from one use of the word to the next. A set of these inflected forms is a flexion¹⁵. An affix may be added in front of a lexal (a prefix), into a lexal (an infix) or at the end of a lexal (a suffix). A suffix will frequently be composed of several morphs, each of which conveys different information about a word's grammatical meaning. The last morph of a word is often called its "ending".

1.93 For example θεός (see #1.41) consists of the lexal θε-, which carries the word's lexical meaning of "God", and -ος its ending, which indicates its grammatical information (in this case, that this form is nominative singular, the form used when the word is the subject of a sentence). With a different ending the word will have a different grammatical meaning — thus the form θεοῦ means "of God" or "God's" (that is, the ending -ου indicates the grammatical information that is technically called genitive singular). "Christ" is Χριστός, so "of Christ" or "Christ's" is Χριστοῦ). Question: "world" is κόσμος; so what is the Greek for "world's"?

1.94 However, for feminine words such as ζωή, "life", the ending meaning "the subject of a sentence" is -η and the ending of the genitive singular is -ης. Similarly for other nouns such as γῆ, "earth"; φωνή, "voice"; ψυχή, "soul" (see #1.41). And being feminine, these will all take the feminine form of the word "the" with them. Question: what will be the meaning of ζωῆς?

1.95 Verbs can have even greater variety in their forms. The most frequently-occurring verb is *εἰμί (it is used almost 2,500 times in the Greek New Testament). This is the flexion for the verb εἰμί, together with the emphatic pronouns which can be used with these verb forms:

	Present Tense of the Verb "to be"	Emphatic Pronouns
S 1    2 3 P 1 2 3	ἐγώ   I (emphatic) σύ   you (singular) (emphatic) αὐτός   he (emphatic) ἡμεῖς   we (emphatic) ὑμεῖς   you (plural) (emphatic) αὐτοί   they (emphatic)	εἰμί   I am εἶ   you (singular) are ἐστί(ν)   [he/she/it] is ἐσμέν   we are ἐστέ   you (plural) are εἰσί(ν)   [they] are

1.96 NOTE the two forms which have nu in brackets: this is movable nu (see #1.75), which may be found either included or omitted in the spelling when these forms are used in a sentence. The forms are to be learnt with the nu.

1.97 Using these forms and the Vocabulary which was introduced earlier (in #1.41 and #1.54) it is now possible for us to make up, or to translate, many Greek sentences. Thus "He is a man of God" will be ἐστὶν ἄνθρωπος θεοῦ. Similarly, "It is Christ's work" is ἐστὶν ἔργον Χριστοῦ (note that the genitive Χριστοῦ, "Christ's", will in Greek come after the word [ἔργον, "work"] that it refers to). And σὺ εἶ ὑποκριτής means You (singular, emphatic) are a hypocrite"; and ἡμεῖς ἐσμὲν οἶκος θεοῦ is "We (emphatic) are God's household"; εἰμὶ προφήτης θεοῦ is "I am God's prophet" or "I am a prophet of God"; ἐστὶν δύναμις Χριστοῦ is "It is Christ's power".

1.98 Much of the work of the next nine Lessons will consist of learning the different types of inflection that can occur in Greek, and which words take one kind of inflection or the other, and the difference that is made to the meaning of a word by inflecting it, and how the words are assembled into sentences to express the author's meaning. The various morphs will all be identified and their functions explained. But if you can see how these short sentences in #1.97 are to be translated from Greek into English (or vice versa), then you are ready to try your hand at translating some actual sentences from the Greek New Testament.

24 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON ONE

1.. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY through Appendix #A0 and #A1.

2.. ALPHABET AND DIPHTHONGS: (a) LEARN the Greek alphabet (#1.41): the names of the Greek letters, their order, their appearance, and their pronunciation. (The best way of doing this is to read down the column of the Greek names of the letters of the alphabet, saying them aloud, and then close your eyes and recite the names of the letters in order. Open your eyes to recheck any that you forget. Repeat this exercise, writing out the Greek letters. Spend five minutes each day going over them out loud, first of all reading them, and then saying them again with your eyes closed. Repeat until you can recite the whole alphabet without looking, and with confidence — and accuracy.) (b) LEARN the diphthongs (#1.54). (c) LEARN the keyword(s) (#1.41, #1.54) for the sound of each letter and diphthong.

3.. PRONUNCIATION: NOTE the Greek words in the columns "Greek examples" (#1.41 and #1.54) — PRACTISE reading them out aloud, using the keywords as necessary to confirm that you have the correct pronunciation. WORK OUT the pronunciation of Luke 14:27-28 (#1.59).

4.. WRITING: WRITE OUT in your Workbook, to hand in to your class teacher (to help you with your writing) the Greek words in the columns "Greek examples" (#1.41 and #1.54). (Ignore accents, but remember that you must put the correct smooth or rough breathing on initial vowels and diphthongs.)

5.. FLEXIONS FOR LEARNING: Your first flexion to learn is the Present Tense of the verb "to be", and the emphatic pronouns which can be used with these forms (#1.95). (The best way of doing this is to spend five minutes saying the forms each day. First of all read through the forms out loud, and then say them again aloud with your eyes closed. Repeat this pattern until you can say them without looking, and with confidence — and accuracy.)

6.. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about what has been covered in Lesson One.

7.. VOCABULARY CARDS: Prepare a set of Vocabulary Cards for this Lesson. Purchase a packet of small system cards and write on the cards the words of the Greek Examples (#1.41 and #1.54), and the emphatic pronouns (#1.95). Write one word per card, the Greek word on one side, and the English meaning(s) on the other. In the top lefthand corner of each side of each card write 1 (meaning, a word introduced in Lesson One). Sort your cards into Greek alphabetical order. Use them whenever you need to check on a word you have not remem¬bered which is used in a Greek Sentence.

8. TRANSLATION EXERCISES: Translate the following Selections from the Greek New Testament, and the English-into-Greek sentences. (Some of these exercises can be done in class at the end of the Lesson, to assist students in seeing how to undertake translation, and the balance set for homework before next class. Or they can all be set for homework.)

VOCABULARY

To translate the following sentences you will need to use the forms of the verb "to be" (#1.95), together with the words on your Vocabulary Cards, from the "Greek Examples" in #1.41 and #1.54 and the emphatic pronouns (#1.95). Other words that will be needed are given below, next to the first sentence in which they are used: make out Vocabulary Cards for each of these new words as you come to them.

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 25

NOTE: προφήτης means either "prophet" or "a prophet"; more on this next Lesson (#2.32).

ALSO NOTE: the word "the" has these forms in these sentences:

		Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Singular	Nominative	ὁ	ἡ	τό
	Genitive	τοῦ	τῆς	τοῦ

A. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

(NOTE: These are selected extracts from the Greek New Testament verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to translate at this stage.)

	SELECTIONS	ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY
A1.	οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:34)	*οὗτος: this, this man;
A2.	ἐσμὲν τέκνα θεοῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ 8:16)	*τέκνα: children;
A3.	οὗτός ἐστιν ἀληθῶς ὁ σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 4:42)	ἀληθῶς: truly; σωτήρ:saviour; *κόσμος: world;
A4.	Σὺ εἶ ὁ διδάσκαλος τοῦ Ἰσραήλ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 3:10)	*διδάσκαλος: teacher; τοῦ Ἰσραήλ: of Israel;
A5.	Ῥαββί, σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, σὺ εἶ ὁ βασιλεὺς τοῦ Ἰσραήλ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:49)	Ῥαββί: Rabbi; [ὁ] *βασιλεύς: [the] king;
A6.	Ὑμεῖς δέ ἐστε σῶμα χριστοῦ(ΠΡΟΣ ΚΟΡΙΝΘΙΟΥΣ Α 12:27)	*σῶμα: body; *χριστός: Christ;
A7.	Σὺ τίς εἶ; Οὐκ εἰμὶ ἐγὼ ὁ χριστός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:19-20)	*τίς: who?; *οὐκ: not;
A8.	Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ἄρτος τῆς ζωῆς . (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:48)	*ἄρτος: bread, loaf [of bread];
A9.	Ἀρχὴ τοῦ εὐαγγελίου Ἰησοῦ χριστοῦ, υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:1)	*ἀρχή: beginning, [the] beginning; *Ἰησοῦς: Jesus;

B. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK

(Do not attempt to put accents on the Greek words; do NOT omit breathings.)

B1.	I (emphatic) am the Christ. (Matthew 24:5)
B2.	Are you (emphatic) the king of the Jews? (Mt 27:11//Mk 15:2//Lk 23:3//Jn 18:33)	of the Jews: τῶν Ἰουδαίων
B3.	This is Jesus the king of the Jews. (Matthew 27:37)
B4.	I (emphatic) am the light of the world. (John 8:12)	the light: τὸ φῶς
B5.	You (plural, emphatic) are the light of the world. (Matthew 5:14)
B6.	You (plural, emphatic) are the salt of the earth. the salt: ra (Matthew 5:13)
B7.	I (emphatic) am the resurrection and the life. (John 11:25)	the resurrection: ἡ ἀνάστασις; and: *καί
BB8.	Truly you are God's son. (Matthew 14:33)
B9.	You (emphatic) are a prophet. (John 4:19)

The Greek New Testament wording for these Sentences is set out in the Student Workbook, page 55. However, a different Greek word order would also be possible for most of them.

* Common Greek words — see #0.3.

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LESSON TWO

THE ARTICLE; THE SECOND DECLENSION; THE PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION

2.1 THE GREEK SENTENCE

2.11 A sentence is, in its simplest form, a statement about something; that is, a topic, and a comment about that topic. The topic, the "something" about which the statement is being made, is called the subject of the sentence. Usually, the subject will be a noun.

2.12 A NOUN is the name of a person, place, or thing (such as "Jesus", "Bethlehem", "Jordan", etc.), or the term used to refer to a person, place, or thing (such as "man", "town", "river", etc.).

2.13 Each noun in Greek is of a particular gender. As in English, there are three genders in Greek: masculine, feminine, and neuter — but many things that are neuter in English will be found to be masculine or feminine gender in Greek, and vice versa. That is to say, gender is a grammatical category, and does not always correspond with the category of biological sex.

2.14 A noun can be either singular or plural ("man"/"men"; "town"/"towns") — this feature is called its number. Greek indicates whether a noun is singular or plural by the kind of ending or suffix which is added to the noun's lexal (sometimes called its stem). In addition to gender and number, a noun has a third grammatical feature, case, to be discussed in the next section.

2.15 A PRONOUN is a word which can be used in the place of a noun (hence the term "pro-noun"), as in "Jesus calls his own sheep by name, and they follow him." (The words in italics are pronouns.) Pronouns are of various kinds, which we will meet in due course. Some other examples are: "he", "she", "it", "you", "my", "this", "who". (See further: #D6, Pronouns.)

2.16 THE VERB: In a sentence, the comment about the subject will be made by means of a verb, which states what is happening. A verb can be a lexical verb (one that has "dictionary meaning", like "made" or "states"), or an auxiliary verb such as "will", "be" and "is" in the previous sentence, or "did" in the sentence "Did you not sow good seed in your field?". A lexical verb is a word of "being" or "doing". (See further: #D6, Pronouns.)

2.17 By the rule of verb agreement, a verb will agree with its subject in number, so that if the subject is plural, the form of the verb will also be plural. Thus, the subject selects or determines the number of the verb. There are two exceptions to this normal rule of verb agreement:

    (a) the neuter plural subject rule is that in Greek grammar a neuter plural subject takes a singular verb (a small number of exceptions to this rule are found in the New Testament); and

    (b) the multiple subject rule is that when the verb has a multiple subject (such as "Jesus and his disciples") the verb agrees in number with that part of the multiple subject to which it is closest. We will be considering examples of these exceptions in due course.

2.18 OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH: (a) A complete sentence can consist of just two words, a subject and a verb: "Jesus wept" (John 11:35). Usually, however, a sentence will contain additional words which give further information about either the subject or the verb. These may be additional nouns or pronouns. Or they may be other "parts of speech" such as the following.

    (b) Adjectives: words which further describe or identify the noun. For example, in the sentence "You are my beloved son", "my" and "beloved", are adjectives; and in "Did you not sow good seed in your field?", "good" and "your" are adjectives.

26

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 27

    (c) Prepositions are words which show the relationship of a noun to the rest of the sentence: Examples are "in" in "in your field" and "before" in "before your face".

    (d) Adverbs are words which give more details about the action of the verb (which is why they are called adverbs — they add something to the meaning of the verb).

    (e) A conjunction can join two short sentences together, combining them into one sentence, each part of which is then called a clause, with its own verb and subject. Thus the two sentences "You have faith" and "I have works" can be combined together into one sentence with the conjunction "and": "You have faith and I have works" (James 2:18, L2/B3). In Greek it is common for sentences to commence with a conjunction.

    (f) Other "parts of speech" include negatives ("no", "not"), and exclamations ("Look!", "Behold").

2.19 EXAMPLES: In these sentences, can you identify what part of speech each word is?

    "You are my beloved son."

    "Did you not sow good seed in your field?"

    "Behold, I send my messenger before your face."

2.2 INFLECTED FORMS FOR NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND ADJECTIVES

2.21 A noun or pronoun can have different types of relationships to its sentence. Its relationship in a particular sentence will be shown by a preposition or by its case, or by the two together. The case of a noun (that is, its relationship to the rest of the sentence) is indicated by the particular ending which is added to the noun's lexal or stem: in general, each case uses a different ending.

2.22 There are four main cases in Greek. Thus there are eight possible forms that a noun can have, four for the singular and four for the plural. (Sometimes two forms will in fact have the same ending.) There is also an additional, vocative, form for some words. Thus a noun is made up of a lexal or stem, giving its lexical meaning, and a suffix called the numbercase morph, which carries the grammatical information of the word's number and case. Pronouns and adjectives, similarly, have a set of different forms to indicate number and case, and can have additional sets of forms to differentiate gender as well.

2.23 "Case" exists in English as in Greek, but in English only the pronoun retains special forms to indicate what its case is. English nouns do have an ending to indicate one particular kind of relationship (the use of "-'s" to show possession), but apart from this they indicate relationship by means of position in a sentence or by the use of prepositions such as "of", "to", and "for".

2.24 The cases in Greek, and their English equivalents, are as set out in the following table.

GREEK	ENGLISH	ENGLISH PRONOUNS	ENGLISH
CASE Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative	CASE Subject Direct Object Possessive Indirect Object	1S 1P 2S/P 3S 3P I we you he/she/it they me us you him/her/it them my our your his/her/its their ⎧to me to us to you to him etc. to them etc. ⎩for me for us for you for him etc. for them etc.	NOUN Before verb After verb -'s/of ... to ... or for ...

2.25 Pronouns have an additional feature called person. Those pronouns that refer to or include the addressor (the person speaking) are said to be first person (that is, "I", "me", "us", "our", etc.); those relating to the addressee (the person/persons being spoken to or written to) are second person ("you", "your"); and those referring to a person or thing spoken or written about ("he", "her", "its", "them", etc.) are third person. Nouns will usually be third person.

28 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

2.26 The different cases can be seen in these sentences (John 2:16; 16:7): 1. You must not make my Father's house a house of merchandise subject verb possessive possessive direct object direct object possessive nominative verb genitive genitive accusative accusative genitive 2. But I speak the truth to you. conjunction subject verb direct object indirect object conjunction nominative verb accusative dative Sometimes the word "to" is not needed in English for the indirect object — the second sentence could also be written in English as, "But I tell you the truth." "You" is still the indirect object, and the Greek would be identical for both forms of the English sentence.

2.27 In addition to the four cases mentioned, there is also a fifth case, the vocative, the form of address. The word "sir" is in the vocative case in the sentence, "Sir, we would like to see Jesus" (John 12:21). In Greek the form of the vocative is the same as for the nominative (a small number of important exceptions — which have a special form for the vocative — will be treated separately, as we come to them).

2.28 As mentioned earlier (#1.92), Greek words show inflection by changes which are made to their endings. For nouns, pronouns, and adjectives these inflected endings, called numbercase endings, indicate the number and case of the word (and, sometimes, its gender also). The set of inflections for a word is called itsflexionls. Where the same pattern of flexion (that is, the same set of endings) is used by numbers of words, then that pattern is called a paradigm (pronounced "parrah-dime"), which means "showing the pattern" (of something). These two terms can be used for the inflections both of nouns (and pronouns and adjectives) and verbs.

2.29 Noun paradigms which resemble one another can be grouped together on the basis of their "family resemblances". These families of nouns are called declensions, and to set out the pattern of inflected forms for a particular noun is called declining it. There are three noun "families" or declensions in New Testament Greek, with different numbers of "family members" or paradigms in each: the First Declension (D1) with five paradigms ("members"); Second Declension (D2) with three paradigms; and Third Declension (D3) with twenty paradigms. D2.1 means Declension 2, Paradigm 1; and so on. The nouns in the lists of "Greek Examples" (#1.41 and #1.54), and their Declension and Paradigm group, are:

FIRST DECLENSION (Dl)

D1.2 Feminine Consonant Stem	D1.1 Feminine ριε Stem	D1.5 Masc. Consonant Stem
γῆ earth ζωή life φωνή voice/sound ψυχή soul/life εἰρήνη peace	ἡμέρα day καρδία heart ὥρα hour/time	προφήτης prophet ὑποκριτής hypocrite

SECOND DECLENSION (D2)

D2.1 Masculine	τόπος place	D2.2 Neuter
ἄνθρωπος man, person θεός God (god) λόγος word/message νόμος law	χρόνος time οἶκος house/household υἱός son οὐρανός heaven	προφήτης work ὑποκριτής gospel προφήτης wood/tree ὑποκριτής sabbath

THIRD DECLENSION (D3)

D3.2 Feminine Vowel Stem	D3.14 Masc/Fem -ων Stem place	D3.9 Neuter Consonant Stem
δύναμις power	αἰών age/world	ῥῆμα word/object

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 29

NOTE that all the words in each Paradigm (flexion group) have the same ending. If you are at all uncertain about what a "noun" is, look carefully at these examples and see (from their English meanings) what kind of words they are.

2.3 THE ARTICLE

2.31 When Greek wants to indicate that a noun is definite it places a special word, ὁ, in front of it. This word is called the definite article or, more simply, just the article. The closest English equivalent is the word "the". Thus ὁ ἄνθρωπος means "the man" (in the sense of "person", "human being"), a definite man, the particular man, where the addressor or the addressee (or both) know which man is being referred to. 2.32 In contrast ἄνθρωπος means simply "a man" or "man"; and similarly for other Greek nouns. Greek has no indefinite article (English "a" or "an"), though where the Greek wishes to stress the indefiniteness of something it may use 21; "a certain", as in ἄνθρωπος 21g, "a certain man" (Luke 10:30).

2.33 The article is an inflected word, changing its ending so that it always agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender and case. It therefore has a separate form for both singular and plural for each of the four cases, for each of the three genders — this means that it has twenty-four forms in all (see further, #A2.2). (Some of these forms are spelt the same as one another, but most of them are distinctive.)

2.34 Frequently the article will be used with a person's name (especially if that person has already been mentioned earlier) to indicate that it is the person known to addressor and addressee. Thus, ὁ Ἰωάννης βλέπει τὸν Ἰησοῦν, which is translated as "John sees Jesus"; the articles ὁ in front of "John" (Ἰωάννης) and τόν in front of "Jesus" (Ἰησοῦν) are not translated.

2.35 The feminine article is a paradigm for the First Declension (D1). This means that the pattern of endings for the feminine article is the same as for one large group of First Declension words, Paradigm D1.2, Feminine Consonant Stem words, a paradigm which includes five words from our lists in #2.29, γῆ, ζωή, φωνή, ψυχή and εἰρήνη. That is to say, the endings of these words decline exactly the same as the feminine article.

2.36 There is a close similarity between the masculine and neuter flexions of the article and the masculine and neuter paradigms of the Second Declension. These paradigms are given here for ὁ κύριος, "the lord", and τὸ ἔργον, "the work, deed, action", together with the flexion of ὁ Ἰησοῦς, "Jesus".

2.4 PARADIGMS OF THE ARTICLE AND SECOND DECLENSION NOUNS¹⁶

2.40

SINGULAR	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.	D2.1 MASCULINE	D2.2 NEUTER	D2.3 "JESUS"
Nominative	ὁ	ἡ	τό	ὁ κύριος	τὸ ἔργον	ὁ Ἰησοῦς
Vocative				κύριε
Accusative	τόν	τήν	τό	τὸν κύριον	τὸ ἔργον	τὸν Ἰησοῦν
Genitive	τοῦ	τῆς	τοῦ	τοῦ κυρίου	τοῦ ἔργου	τοῦ Ἰησοῦ
Dative	τῷ	τῇ	τῷ	τῷ κυρίῳ	τῷ ἔργῳ	τῷ Ἰησοῦ
PLURAL
Nominative	οἱ	αἱ	τά	οἱ κύριοι	τὰ ἔργα
Accusative	τούς	τάς	τά	τοὺς κυρίους	τὰ ἔργα
Genitive	τῶν	τῶν	τῶν	τῶν κυρίων	τῶν ἔργων
Dative	τοῖς	ταῖς	τοῖς	τοῖς κυρίοις	τοῖς ἔργοις

30 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

Features to note in these paradigms:

2.41 The neuter nominative and accusative forms are the same as each other. This is true for all Greek neuter nouns (and adjectives and participles), both in the singular and the plural.

2.42 The nominative and accusative neuter plurals end in -α, and all the genitive plurals end in -ων This is true for all neuter paradigms of all declensions.

2.43 The masculine and neuter paradigms differ from each other only in the nominative and accusative cases — in the genitive and dative they are identical.

2.44 The characteristic of the Greek dative case is the letter ι. NOTICE that in the singular of the First and Second Declensions it is written subscript (#1.56); but this subscript iota is still a part of the spelling of the word and must not be omitted.

2.45 The stem of the article is τ, except in the masculine and feminine nominative singular and plural, where it has become a rough breathing instead. 2.46 The Second Declension masculine singular has a separate, special form for the vocative. This is the first exception for us to note to the generalization that the vocative has the same form as the nominative (see #2.27).

2.47 The Second Declension (D2) is the most common noun group in the Greek New Testament, consisting of nouns which have their nominative singular ending in -ος and are masculine (372 New Testament words), or which end in -ον and are neuter (196 New Testament words).

2.5 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

2.51 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES: An adjective, like the article, agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender, and case. The adjectives that have been listed so far (ἴδιος, μόνος and ὅλος — see #1.41) each therefore also have twenty-four forms. These correspond with the eight forms each of the Second Declension masculine, the First Declension feminine, and the Second Declension neuter. Thus the Greek word for "whole" (which is the source of our English word) has the three nominative singular forms ὅλος (masculine; declines like κύριος), ὅλη (feminine; declines like the feminine article) and ὅλον (neuter; declines like ἔργον).

2.52 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS: (a) Pronouns (#2.15) like αὐτός (#1.54) also have twenty-four forms, the three nominative singular forms being αὐτός (masculine, "he"), αὐτή (feminine, "she") and αὐτό (neuter, "it"). The possessive "his" is the genitive form, αὐτοῦ).

    (b) The Nominative and Genitive first and second person pronouns are:

	First Person	Second Person
SINGULAR PLURAL	Nominative Genitive ἐγώ I μου my ἡμεῖς we ἡμῶν our	Nominative Genitive σύ you σου your ὑμεῖς you ὑμῶν your

    (c) The genitive of a pronoun is placed after the word to which it refers: ὁ υἱός μου, "my son"; ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν, "your king".

2.53 VOCABULARY LISTING: Adjectives and pronouns, like nouns, are listed in lexicons and vocabularies in their nominative singular form. Adjectives will normally be shown in the masculine, followed by the feminine and neuter endings, thus: ὅλος -η -ον (either with or

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 31

without a hyphen in front of the endings). Pronouns are usually listed similarly. A noun is always listed in the nominative singular followed by either the full form of its genitive singular or just the ending of its genitive singular, as this allows the identification of its declension. This in turn is then followed by the indication of the noun's gender, either by "m", "f" or "n" respectively, or by giving the article that it takes. Thus the entry will appear as: κύριος, -ου, ὁ, or καρδία, -ας, ἡ

2.6 PREPOSITIONS

2.61 Many sentences contain nouns which are not the subject or object of the verb or related by the idea of "of" (genitive case) or "to" or "for" (dative case). For these nouns, their relationship to the rest of the sentence is usually shown through a preposition. A preposition is always located in front of the noun (or of the noun's article, if it has one) — hence the name, "pre-position", i.e. in the position in front of its noun.

2.62 When a noun is used after a preposition in this way, it can never be nominative or vocative, but it can be either accusative, genitive or dative. These three cases which are used with prep-ositions are called the oblique cases as they are capable of being related obliquely (indirectly, that is, through the preposition) to the rest of the sentence; this is in contrast to the nominative case, which is called the direct case.

2.63 Each Greek preposition takes or selects or governs either one particular case, or two cases, or all three oblique cases. The preposition has a different meaning with each of its different cases, if it can take more than one. Therefore it is the preposition together with the case it governs which gives the meaning in a particular sentence. This is the concept of collocation. Collocation means literally "located together". It refers to a group of two or more words which work together with each other to give the meaning, and are therefore taken together as a single unit of meaning in a sentence.

2.64 Most prepositions have a central or core meaning (which is the usual one), and a number of extended meanings, which are all part of its total area of meaning (see #0.2).

2.65 New prepositions will be introduced in each Lesson. They must always be learnt together with the case (or cases) that they take. The following three prepositions, and the case that each takes, should be learnt this lesson:

(a) ἐν: Takes the dative. Used 2,713 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "in". Extended meanings: "within, among, at, by means of, with".

(b) ἐκ/ἐξ (see #1.75): Takes the genitive. Used 915 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "out of" (indicating source or origin, or previous position). Extended meanings: "from amongst, away from, belonging to, a member of".

(c) πρό: Takes the genitive. Used 47 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "before"; used both of time (= "prior to") and place (= "in front of").

2.66 Thus when a word that is declined (noun, pronoun, adjective, or participle) is found in an oblique case (#2.62), it will be in that case for one of two reasons: either

(a) it has the inherent meaning of that case (see #2.24; #2.26): in which circumstance you must give it that meaning in translating it; or

(b) it is following a preposition which has selected the case it is in (see #2.63): in which circumstance the meaning will be the meaning which the preposition has when used with that particular case.

(cᵃᵈᵈᵉᵈ ˢᵘᵇˢᵉᶜᵗᶦᵒⁿ ˢᴳᴴ)or, it conventionally acts as the object of a verb - usually this applies to the accusativeforthe direct object, and the dative for the indirect object, but for some verbs the genitive or dative acts as what will be translated as the object.

2.67 Thus: σοι is the dative singular of "you" and therefore has the meaning "to you" or "for you" (#2.24). However, the preposition ἐν, "in", takes or selects the dative case: so ἔν σοι means "in

32 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

you" and DOES NOT mean "in to you" or "in for you" — in this circumstance the dative case is not being used to mean "to" or "for" because the dative case is selected by the preposition ἐν for whatever word ἐν governs. This is what is meant by saying (#2.65) that ἐν "takes the dative".

2.68 To find out which of these two possibilities (#2.66) applies when you come across an oblique case: look in front of the word(s) in the oblique case to see if there is a preposition there which governs that case. If so, then that preposition is the reason for the use of the oblique case, and the meaning of the words is the meaning of that preposition in conjunction with that case. If there is no preposition in front of the oblique case, then the word in the oblique case will have the inherent meaning of that case (ᵃᵈᵈᵉᵈ ˢᴳᴴ or it should be read with the verb in the phrase as a single unit).

2.69 PREPOSITION COLLOCATION RULE Because a preposition has a different meaning with each of the different cases which it can take, you can only know what that preposition means in a given sentence if you take it in conjunction with the word(s) that it governs in the oblique case. That is, a preposition is taken in collocation (#2.63) with what it governs. Therefore the preposition collocation rule is: Always read a preposition in conjunction with what it governs in a sentence, and translate the preposition and what it governs as a single unit of meaning in that sentence.

2.7 THE VERB

2.71 The verb is the word in a sentence which makes a statement about the subject or which transfers an idea or an action from the subject to an object (some other person or thing). In English it can consist of more than one word; in Greek it usually is a single word.

2.72 (a) In its usual type of mode or mood¹⁷ — the indicative — the verb can make an affirmation ("Jesus wept"), or ask a question ("Are you the Christ?"). It has these other modes also: (b) Make a request or give a command (imperative mode: "Lord, save us"; "Take and eat this"); (c) Make a statement about possibilities (subjunctive mode: "If anyone would be my disciple . ."). (d) The infinitive is also treated as a mode ("I will make you to become fishers of men . ."). These four — indicative, imperative, subjunctive and infinitive — are the ones normally used. (e) We meet the rare optative mode in #10.5.

2.73 Like a pronoun (see #2.25), a verb indicates person (first, second or third) and we have noted earlier (#2.17) that it agrees with the number (singular or plural) of its subject (apart from some specific exceptions).

2.74 Like other inflected words, a verb consists of a lexal (see #1.92) and affixes, that is, morphs added to the lexal to indicate the grammatical information about a word in a particular sentence. An affix added at the beginning of a lexal is a prefix, within a lexal is an infix, and at the end of a lexal is a suffix. Most grammatical morphs are suffixes. By means of these morphs, a verb indicates its five features: person, number, tense (including time and/or aspect), mode, and voice. To parse a verb form is to state each of these features about it, in the order given here, followed by the lexical form (the form of the word which is given in a lexicon) and the word's meaning. Thus, λύομεν: first person plural present (durative) indicative active of λύω, "I loose".

2.75 The inflected forms of a verb that indicate person and number are grouped together into a flexion and (as for a noun) a pattern flexion is called a paradigm. Related paradigms for verbs are known as a conjugation, and setting out the pattern of inflected forms for a particular verb is called conjugating it.

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 33

2.76 The endings of a Greek verb which indicate the person and number of its subject had their origin long ago in the attachment of an unemphatic personal pronoun as a suffix to the stem of the verb (see historical grammarian A. T. Robertson, page 149: listed, Appendix F). This suffix can be referred to as a pronoun suffix. For example: stem φα- or φη- means "say", and the pronoun suffix -μι means "I", so (φημί means "I say". Similarly the stem of the verb "be" is ἐσ- and λυ- means "loose", while the pronoun suffix -μεν means "we". Thus ἐσμεν means "we are" and λύομεν means "we loose".

2.77 Notice that in λύομεν a "joining vowel", -ο-, has been placed between λυ- and -μεν. In some other forms in a flexion this "joining vowel" is -ε-. Later on [#4.44(b)] we shall be learning about the role of this vowel in the verb; for the present, in the forms we are now learning, this vowel is a morph which has a "neutral" influence in a word; that is, it does not affect the word's meaning. It can therefore be called the neutral morph. For the time being it is convenient to take the neutral morph together with the pronoun morph as the "ending" of the verb.

2.78 As the Greek language evolved over the centuries prior to the "classical era" (600-300 BC), there developed two basic paradigm patterns (that is to say, conjugations) for Greek verbs in the present tense. The older of these has retained the original -,ut pronoun ending of its form for the first person singular present indicative active (which is the lexical form of a verb, the form by which it is listed in a lexicon), and is therefore often referred to as the -ΜΙ Conjugation. In the evolution of the later, Omega Conjugation, the -μι has been lost and in the first person singular its -ο- vowel, the neutral morph, has lengthened into omega, this lengthening itself indicating the pronoun "I".

2.79 We meet the -μι conjugation in due course (#7.7). The omega conjugation, which we shall look at now, is by far the more common conjugation in New Testament Greek.

2.8 PARADIGMS OF THE PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE

2.81 The verb λύω "I loose" is the pattern verb for many hundreds of other New Testament verbs. Adding these endings to other verb lexals:

		Lexal/Ending	Meaning	"I see"	"I speak/say"
SINGULAR	1	λύω	I loose/I am loosing	βλέπ-ω	λέγ-ω
	2	λύεις	you loose/you are loosing	βλέπ-εις	λέγ-εις
	3	λύει	he/she/it looses/he/she/it is loosing	βλέπ-ει	λέγ-ει
PLURAL	1	λύομεν	we loose/we are loosing	βλέπ-ομεν	λέγ-ομεν
	2	λύετε	you loose/you are loosing	βλέπ-ετε	λέγ-ετε
	3	λύουσι(ν)	they loose/they are loosing	βλέπ-ουσι(ν)	λέγ-ουσι(ν)

2.82 POINTS TO NOTE: (a) NOTE that the ending for each form of the verb consists of the neutral morph (-ο- or -ε-) plus the pronoun suffix. For the first person singular, the pronoun suffix is not an additive morph (something added to the word), but the fact of the lengthening of the neutral morph -ο- into -ω. This is called a process morph": the morph consists of what is being done to something that is already there in a word form; that is, the morph is a process of change applied to a morph that is already part of the word form. (b) NOTE that the -ει ending of the third person singular does not differentiate gender but can mean "he" or "she" or "it" — it is necessary to decide which pronoun to use according to the context. (If in doubt, translate as "he".) (c) NOTE that the third person plural form, λύουσι(ν), has movable nu (see #1.75).

34 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

(d) NOTE that to find the lexal of an omega verb, you simply remove the -ω. To this lexal you then add whichever ending is needed. You can thus take the endings of λύω and add them to the lexal of any other omega verb, as in the examples of βλέπω and λέγω, above. Translate into Greek: "We see"; "They are saying", "You (singular) speak".

See the further comments on these forms to be found in #A2.34 to #A2.39.

2.83 INTERNAL SUBJECT: We have seen (#2.76) that each verb form already contains its own subject, which is an unemphatic personal pronoun. Thus the subject of λέγομεν, "we are saying", is -μεν, "we". That is to say, each verb form already has, as part of it, an internal subject. If the verb is first or second person then that internal subject will be "I" or "we", or "you" singular or plural, as the case may be. If the verb is third person singular, then as the pronoun suffix does not indicate gender, the subject can be translated "he", "she", or "it", as the context requires; if the verb is third person plural, its internal subject is "they". Thus in the sentence (Luke 7:33) Δαιμόνιον ἔχει, the third person singular verb ἔχει will be translated "he has".

2.84 EXTERNAL SUBJECT: When the verb is third person (singular or plural) it will frequently have with it a separate word as the subject (the topic about which the verb is making a comment —see #2.11). This separate word will be in the nominative case: this is how you will recognize it as the subject of the verb. There may well also be an article and/or adjective with the subject word, all of them in the nominative case (that will be how you know they collocate together, that is, belong together as one unit of the sentence). This subject (consisting of one, two, or more words) is an external subject — it is external to the verb. When an external subject occurs in a clause, it takes over the role of subject from the internal subject, and therefore the internal subject is NOT TRANSLATED. Consider the sentence (John 18:38), Λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Πιλάτος: the verb form λέγει is third person singular of λέγω, and therefore means "he/she/it says"; but there is an external subject (after the verb, in the nominative case), ὁ Πιλάτος. Thus the correct translation is "Pilate says to him" (and NOT: "Pilate he says to him").

2.85 "EMERGENCY USE ONLY": As there is frequently an external subject in the clause, we can see that the internal subject will not very often need to be translated. We should look on the internal subject as being "for emergency use only" — that is, only to be used when there is no external subject in the clause. We start by searching for the external subject, and only use the internal subject if there is no other. Consider the sentence (John 19:14), καὶ λέγει τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις: again the verb form is λέγει"he/she/it says". But there is no external subject for this verb, so the internal subject will be needed. The context shows that out of "he/she/it" the right subject is "he", giving us the translation "and he says to the Jews".

2.86 EMPHATIC PRONOUNS: We have seen (#2.83) that there is no separate word actually needed with a Greek verb for "I", "we", or "you", because these pronouns are part of the verb form as an internal subject. But there are emphatic pronouns for use with the first and second person (and third person) forms of the verb (#1.95). NOTE: These emphatic pronouns can be used with any verb. So when one of these pronouns occurs, it is an external subject, and is used as a way of indicating emphasis. Compare the shade of difference in meaning between simply saying, Εἶ ὁ Χριστός, "You are the Christ" (without any special emphasis), and Σὺ εἶ ὁ Χριστός, "You are the Christ" (emphasis on the "you"). Can you see the difference in meaning between these two sentences? Thus in the sentence (John 18:37) Σὺ λέγεις , ὅτι βασιλεύς εἰμι [ἐγώ], "You say that I am a king", there is an emphatic pronoun for "you" (σύ), but the emphatic pronoun for "I" (ἐγώ) is not used. So the "you" is emphasized, but not the "I". When translating, always indicate this emphasis by underlining each emphatic pronoun in your translation.

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 35

2.87 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: The degree of emphasis intended by the author will vary from one context to another, but sometimes the shades of meaning from emphatic pronouns can be quite significant. If you know Greek, you will recognize the emphatic pronouns, and pick up on these shades of meaning. An example of this is the emphatic I in the great "I am" statements by the Lord in the Gospels and Revelation (see L2/B2 [Sentence B2 of this Lesson]). Then, note the contrast in emphasis in "You have faith, and I have works" (L2/B3), and in "You are a disciple of that fellow, but we are disciples of Moses" (L3/B15). There is similar contrast in emphasis in the conversation between John (ἐγώ, I) and the priests and Levites, who refer to him as σύ (John 1:21-23; L3/1330). And note the significance of the emphatic "I" in Matthew 10:16 (L3/1323): "You are being sent out as sheep in the midst of wolves, but I am the one who is sending you" [and that will make all the difference!].

2.88 A SECOND ACCENT TO NOTE: Once before (see #A1.37) we needed to note an accent. In this Lesson we have a second instance where an accent is important. In the verb εἰμί, the second person singular form is εἶ. Note the use of the circumflex over the smooth breathing on the iota. The accent distinguishes this verb form from εἰ, with a smooth breathing but no accent, which means "if".

2.89 ASKING A QUESTION: The paradigms given for εἰμί (#1.95) and λύω (#2.81) are paradigms for the Indicative Mode, that is, where a verb is stating something as a fact. The Indicative also includes the Interrogative, that is, when a verb is asking a question. Often the Greek wording of a statement and a question will be the same. How then will you know that a question is being asked? In this book, and in your edition of the Greek New Testament, this is shown by the use of the question mark (;) at the end of a sentence. NOTE: The first step in understanding the meaning of a Greek sentence is to check whether or not it is a question.

2.9 WORD ORDER

2.91 Greek sentence order can differ considerably from that of English. Word order is used in English to indicate the relationship of the words in the sentence: consider the difference in meaning, indicated solely by word order, between "The man ate a large fish" and "A large fish ate the man". In contrast, Greek indicates case (subject, object, and other relationships) by its word endings, and the position of a word in a clause or sentence is frequently used to indicate emphasis.

2.92 EMPHATIC POSITIONS: The beginning of a sentence is an emphatic position, and the most important word in a sentence may be placed first to give it emphasis. At times in English also we may put a word first in a sentence, out of its usual order, so as to place emphasis upon it. Consider these two examples from the NIV where the object of the verb has been placed first: "The poor you will always have with you" (Matthew 26:11); "This command I received from my Father" (John 10:14). Similarly, other words can be placed first for emphasis: "Never man spoke like this man" (see John 7:46, AV). Indeed, in Greek a noun in this emphatic position can be considered definite enough not to be given the article. Thus in Ἀρχὴ τοῦ εὐαγγελίου [see L 1/A9 (Lesson One, Selection A9)], 'Aprj is translated in English as "The beginning". Again, a word can also be emphasized in Greek by being held back to the end of a clause or sentence.

2.93 NOUN SUBJECT: When the subject is a noun, it is normal for it to be placed after the verb to which it refers — it will be recognized as being the subject as it is nominative case, and will usually have the article, also in the nominative case. (NOTE: a pronoun subject may be found placed anywhere in a clause, and frequently comes in front of the verb.)

2.94 THE GREEK NEGATIVE: The negative "not" in Greek is οὐ before a consonant, οὐκ before a vowel or diphthong with a smooth breathing, and οὐχ before a vowel or diphthong with a

36 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

rough breathing (compare English use of "a"/"an"). In Greek the negative usually functions very closely together with the verb, and indeed they can be regarded as filling the one (verb) slot in the sentence. The negative comes in front of the verb to which it refers, whereas in English it will be placed after an auxiliary verb ("have", "do", etc.). Compare the order of ἐγὼ οὐκ εἰμί, with the English word order, "I am not". Greek normally puts the negative with the verb, whereas English style most frequently would take it with the noun: thus Greek will say, Ἄρτους οὐκ ἔχομεν (note how the negative collocates with or goes with the verb), while the English translation will be, "We have no bread" (the negative going with the noun, rather than "We do not have bread").

2.95 COMPLEMENT: The word (or words) coming after the verb "to be" to complete the thought is called the complement (that is to say, the "completement"). Its customary position in Greek is prior to the verb. Thus Kijptog kowtv 6 viol roc) dtvepa57wv means "the son of man is lord". Note: (a) that the complement has no article (it is usual for the complement not to have an article), and (b) that the complement is in the nominative case (because Etui is a verb of equivalence — that is, the complement equates with [is the same person/thing as] the subject).

2.96 CONJUNCTIONS WHICH ARE NEVER FIRST: Most Greek sentences commence with a conjunction, a "joining word" (#2.18), such as καί, "and", ἀλλά, "but", εἰ, "if", ὅτι, "because, that", πόθεν, "whence? where from?", ὡς, "like, as", καθώς*, "just as"; and so on. However, there are a small number of conjunctions which can never be placed first in a Greek clause or sentence. The most common of these are the conjunctions δέ ("and", "but"), τέ, ("and [so]"), γάρ ("for"), and οὖν ("then", "therefore"). The translation of δέ, τέ and γάρ needs to be placed first in their clause or sentence when rendering them into English.

2.97 GENITIVES AND ADJECTIVES:

    (a) A genitive regularly comes after the noun to which it refers. Thus οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ, "the sons of the Evil One". This applies also to the Greek possessive pronouns such as "my" and "your": in translation into English these will need to be placed in front of their noun. Thus: ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν, to be translated as, "your king". (If a Greek genitive is placed in front of what it refers to, this would be a change of word order indicating emphasis — #2.91.)

    (b) An adjective can come between the article and its noun. Note the position of the dative σῷ of the adjective σός, "your" (singular), ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ, "in your field" (L2/B25). It can also come after the noun: but in that case the noun's article must be repeated in front of the adjective. Thus, in L2/B14: ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός, "my beloved son" — more literally, "my son, the beloved one".

    (c) An adjectival prepositional phrase can be used in the same way, after the noun it refers to, with the noun's article repeated. Thus, in L2/B5: ὁ ἄρτος ὁ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ, "the bread out of the heaven" (the repeated article is not translated).

2.98 INDECLINABLE WORDS: Some words (mostly foreign names) are indeclinable, and will be recognized as genitive (or one of the other cases) only by their position, and the sense of the sentence. Thus: ὁ θεὸς Ἰακώβ, "the God of Jacob" (L2/B20). Ἰακώβ, "Jacob", is in the normal genitive position, after the noun to which it refers, and therefore is translated here as "of Jacob". (When an article is used with an indeclinable name — see #2.33 — this will enable its case to be known: for example, John 4:5, ὃ ἔδωκεν Ἰακὼβ [τῷ] Ἰωσὴφ, "which Jacob gave to Joseph".)

2.99 NORMAL GREEK WORD ORDER: For fuller detail, see #A2.6. In summary: Some Greek sentences, especially when the subject is a pronoun, can have a word order quite close to that of English. And at times normal Greek word order will be altered, especially to indicate emphasis. But for many Greek clauses and sentences we can recognize a basic pattern of normal Greek word order. This basic pattern for Greek is: conjunction, complement/direct object, verb, subject. Moreover, as we have seen, a genitive will regularly follow the noun to which it refers.

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 37

Other words and phrases will be fitted into this basic pattern. Now, the basic word order pattern for English is: conjunction, subject, verb, complement/direct object, indirect object. Note then: In translating from Greek, you must locate each grammatical unit in the Greek sentence, and place it in its right position for English order. That is: Be sure that you translate not only Greek words into English words, but also Greek order into English order.

ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON TWO

It is important to use your study time to learn the paradigms set for the Lesson, to read the relevant section of Appendix A for each Lesson, and to use your Workbook to see that you have understood the grammar that you need to know. But: spend most of your available study time for each Lesson working on translating the Selections from the Greek New Testament — these are the practical examples, from the New Testament, of the grammar covered in the Lesson.

1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms which now need to be learnt by heart are: 2. The Article (#2.40) 3. The Present Indicative Active of λύω (#2.81). LEARN these paradigms down the columns. Write them out from memory. (Use the Practice Sheet in your Workbook to assist you with this.) Check your work against this book and make sure that you have all the forms word perfect, and correctly spelt. NOTE: you should spend five minutes daily in learning the set paradigms for each Lesson. Read a paradigm aloud once or twice, then close your eyes and say it aloud again. Follow this procedure a second time. Then go on to the next paradigm. Go through one or two paradigms each day in this way, then review all of them together at the end of each week.

2. LEARNING THE SECOND DECLENSION: Compare the masculine and neuter flexion of the article with the paradigms for the Second Declension, κύριος and ἔργον. Learn to recognize the forms of the Second Declension by noting similarities and differences between their endings and the article.

3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the comments and guidelines which are set out in the Appendix, #A2. Note in particular the Principles of Translation (#A2.4) and Translation Techniques (#A2.5), and be guided by these in your work.

4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson.

5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the Translation Exercises which follow. NOTE: To translate these sentences you will need to use the prepositions (#2.65) and the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with Eipi and the words on your Vocabulary Cards from Lesson One. The meanings of all other words that will be needed are given below, next to the first sentence in which each new word is used. (Some alternative meanings for these words are given in brackets.)

6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Write out Vocabulary Cards for all the new words as you are introduced to them this Lesson, in the top lefthand corner of each side of each Card writing 2 (for a word introduced in Lesson Two). Add these cards to your collection, and place them all in Greek alphabetical order. You will also be able to add extra information to some existing Cards. Put different meanings for the same Greek word on the one Card. On Cards for prepositions, be sure to put the case taken as well as the meaning. Look words up on your Vocabulary Cards as you need them. Seek to remember each word as you look it up and use it.

38 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK

(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.)

A1.	Jesus is the tree of life.	"of life": see #1.94
A2.	It is the voice of a prophet.	"prophet", genitive singular: προφήτου
A3.	I (emphatic) am a teacher of the Jews.
A4.	This is God's work.	"this", neuter singular: τοῦτο
A5.	Is this the place?	"this", masculine singular: *οὗτος
A6.	The prophet sees earth and heaven.	re accusative of "earth": see #2.35
A7.	God sees the soul of a man.
A8.	Jesus speaks the words of life.	"word": *λόγος
A9.	The hypocrite does not speak.
A10.	This is a message out of heaven.
A11.	You (plural, emphatic) are breaking the law of God.	"breaking": loosing, *λύω
A12.	Men are saying, "Jesus is the Christ."
A13.	God says to the Christ, "You (emphatic) are my Son."	"my": μου (after the noun it refers to)
A14.	The Son speaks words out of the heart.
A15.	We (emphatic) say, "This is the gospel of the Lord."

B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

(NOTE: These are selections from the verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to read at this stage.)

	SELECTION	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
B1.	Ἡμεῖς νόμον ἔχομεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:7)	*ἔχω: I have
B2.	Ἐγώ εἰμι τὸ Ἄλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ, λέγει Κύριος ὁ θεός. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 1:8)	*καί: and (also, even); *λέγω: I say/speak/tell
B3.	Σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις, κἀγὼ ἔργα ἔχω· (ΙΑΚΩΒΟΥ 2:18)	*πίστις, -εως, ἡ: faith [see #A2.57]; *κἀγώ = καὶ ἐγώ
B4.	Ἄρτους οὐκ ἔχομεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 8:16, margin)	[See #2.94.]
B5.	Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ ἄρτος ὁ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καταβαίνων (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:50)	*ἐκ: out of (+gen) [See #2.65; #2.97(c)]; καταβαίνων: coming down
B6.	καὶ λέγετε, Δαιμόνιον ἔχει· (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 7:33)	*δαιμόνιον, -ου, τό: demon
B7.	Σὺ λέγεις , ὅτι βασιλεύς εἰμι ἐγώ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:37)	*ὅτι: that (because; " [#1.84])
B8.	ὁ Πιλάτος λέγει τῷ Ἰησοῦ, Πόθεν εἶ σύ; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:8-9)	Πιλᾶτος, -ου, ὁ: Pilate; πόθεν: whence, where from?
B9.	ὁ Πέτρος λέγει αὐτῷ, Σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 8:29)	Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ: Peter; αὐτῷ: to him
B10.	Ἀκούεις τί οὗτοι λέγουσιν; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΤΘΑΙΟΝ 21:16)	*ἀκούω: I hear; τί: what? (why?) οὗτοι: these (men, people)

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 39

	SELECTION	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
B11.	Σαμαρείτης εἶ σύ, καὶ δαιμόνιον ἔχεις; Ἐγὼ δαιμόνιον οὐκ ἔχω. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:48-49)	Σαμαρείτης, -ου, ὁ: a Samaritan
B12.	Σὺ εἶ Σίμων ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωνᾶ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:42)	Σίμων: Simon; Ἰωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Jonas
B13.	Λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Πιλάτος, Τί ἐστιν ἀλήθεια; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:38)	*ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἡ: truth
B14.	καὶ φωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν, Σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:11)	ἐγένετο: [there] came, became; μου: my; *ἀγαπητός -ή -όν: beloved
B15.	Κἀγὼ δέ σοι λέγω, ὅτι σὺ εἶ Πέτρος. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 16:18)	*καί: also (and); *δέ: and (but) [#2.96]; σοι: to you (singular)
B16.	Λέγει αὐτῷ ἡ γυνή, Κύριε, θεωρῶ ὅτι προφήτης εἶ σύ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 4:19)	*γυνή, -αικος, ἡ: woman; κύριε: Sir; θεωρῶ: I perceive, observe
B17.	καὶ λέγει τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις, Ἴδε, ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:14)	Ἰουδαῖος -αία -ον: a Jew; ἴδε: behold
B18.	ὁ Ἰωάννης ... βλέπει τὸν Ἰησοῦν ... καὶ λέγει, Ἴδε ὁ ἀμνὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:29)	*βλέπω: I see; ἀμνός, -οῦ, ὁ: lamb
B19.	Καὶ ἰδού, φωνὴ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 3:17)	*ἰδού: behold; λέγουσα: saying (participle)
B20.	Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ θεὸς Ἀβραάμ, καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰσαάκ, καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰακώβ. Οὐκ ἔστιν ὁ θεὸς θεὸς νεκρῶν, ἀλλὰ ζώντων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 22:32)	Ἀβραάμ: Abraham; Ἰσαάκ: Isaac; Ἰακώβ: Jacob; νεκρῶν: of those who are dead; *ἀλλά: but; ζώντων: of those who are living
B21.	ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σού εἰσιν οἱ οὐρανοί· (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΒΡΑΙΟΥΣ 1:10)	*χείρ, χειρός, ἡ: hand; σου: your (singular)
B22.	Ἰδού, ἐγὼ ἀποστέλλω τὸν ἄγγελόν μου πρὸ προσώπου σου. (KATA MAPKON 1:2)	*ἀποστέλλω: I send; *ἄγγελος, -ου, ὁ: messenger (angel); *πρό (+gen): before; *πρόσωπον, -ου, τό: face
B23.	καὶ ἰδού, φωνὴ ἐκ τῆς νεφέλης, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 17:5)	νεφέλη, ἡ: cloud
B24.	κύριός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου καὶ τοῦ σαββάτου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 2:28)	*κύριος, -ου, ὁ: lord; *καί: also, even (and)
B25.	Κύριε, οὐχὶ καλὸν σπέρμα ἔσπειρας ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ; Πόθεν οὖν ἔχει ζιζάνια; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:27)	*οὐχί: not; *καλός -ή -όν: good; σπέρμα, -ατος, τό: seed; ἔσπειρας: you (sg) sowed; *ἐν (+dat): in; σός σή σόν: your (sing); ἀγρός, -οῦ, ὁ: field; *οὖν: then, so; ζιζάνιον, -ου, τό: darnel (weed resembling wheat)
B26.	Ὁ σπείρων τὸ καλὸν σπέρμα ἐστὶν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου· ὁ δὲ ἀγρός ἐστιν ὁ κόσμος· τὸ δὲ καλὸν σπέρμα, οὗτοί εἰσιν οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς βασιλείας· τὰ δὲ ζιζάνιά εἰσιν οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ· (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:37-38)	ὁ σπείρων: the one who sows; *βασιλεία, -ας, ἡ: kingdom (reign); *πονηρός -ά -όν: evil, the Evil One
B27.	Καὶ φωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῆς νεφέλης, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός (var. ἐκλελεγμένος). (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 9:35)	ἐκλελεγμένος: chosen [one]

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LESSON THREE

FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE

3.1 COMPLETE PARADIGMS FOR THE FIRST DECLENSION (D1)

3.11 In Lesson Two, the feminine form of the article introduced us to the First Declension (D1). The pattern of the article is in fact only one of four basic paradigms for this declension — the endings differ slightly according to the nature of the last letter of the stem to which they are being added, and according to whether the word is masculine or feminine gender (there are no neuter words of the First Declension). There is also a mixed or hybrid feminine paradigm, which changes from one to another of the two basic feminine patterns. These five First Declension paradigms are set out here:

	FEMININE NOUNS	MASCULINE NOUNS
Singular   Nominative   Vocative   Accusative   Genitive   Dative Plural   Nominative   Accusative   Genitive   Dative	D1.2 c stem D1.1 ριε stem D1.3 σ stem voice heart glory       φωνή καρδία δόξα φωνή καρδία δόξα φωνήν καρδίαν δόξαν φωνῆς καρδίας δόξης φωνῇ καρδίᾳ δόξῃ       φωναί καρδίαι δόξαι φωνάς καρδίας δόξας φωνῶν καρδιῶν δοξῶν φωναῖς καρδίαις δόξαις	D1.5 c stem D1.4 ριε stem disciple young man     μαθητής νεανίας μαθητά νεανία μαθητήν νεανίαν μαθητοῦ νεανίου μαθητῇ νεανίᾳ     μαθηταί νεανίαι μαθητάς νεανίας μαθητῶν νεανιῶν μαθηταῖς νεανίαις

3.12 It is necessary for you to be able to recognize the forms of these paradigms, not by learning them off by heart, but by understanding how their flexions compare with and differ from that for the feminine article.

3.13 FEMININE CONSONANT STEM PARADIGM (D1.2): If the stem of a feminine word ends in a phoneme (#1.42) other than -ρ, -ι, ε, or a sibilant, then the flexion for that word is identical with that for the feminine article ἡ, #2.40, taking -η throughout all its singular endings (like φωνή). This is Paradigm D1.2 (the abbreviation for Declension 1, Paradigm 2), referred to as the "Feminine Consonant Stem Paradigm", because almost all the words which follow this paradigm have consonant stems — it is followed by 191 New Testament words, 185 with consonant stems, four ending in -οη one in -ωη, and one in -ευη (these words are listed in #D1.64). NOTE: If you know the feminine article, then you already know how to decline φωνή, for it follows the article exactly.

3.14 FEMININE pie STEM PARADIGM (D1.1): If the stem of a word ends in one of the three phonemes -ρ, -ι, or -ε, then that word has -α throughout all its singular endings (like καρδία). This is Paradigm D1.1, referred to as the "ριε" Paradigm because the stem of all but one of the words which follow this paradigm — there are 310 of them in the New Testament — ends in a p, / or a (The one exception is στοά, "porch", which is also an exception to the expectation — see #3.13 — that an -ο stem would end in -οη.³⁸) NOTE: If you know the paradigm for φωνή, you can immediately see how καρδία, will decline: simply change each -η in the flexion of φωνή into -α, and you have the endings for καρδία.

40

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 41

3.15 FEMININE SIGMA STEM PARADIGM (D1.3): If the stem of a word ends in a sibilant (ζ, σ, or a double letter containing σ), then that word follows the mixed pattern of δόξα, Paradigm D1.3, referred to as the "Sigma Stem Paradigm". In addition, the Sigma Stem Paradigm is also followed by four New Testament words ending in -ρ, eight in -ν, and one each in -λ and -θ. As there are eight New Testament nouns with sibilant stems, there are thus a total of 22 New Testament nouns which follow Paradigm D1.3. These nouns, and the number of times each occurs in the New Testament, are set out in #D1.65. Paradigm D1.3 is also followed by numerous pronouns and participles which have a sibilant stem in their feminine flexions. NOTE: If you know the paradigms for καρδία and φωνή, you can immediately see how to decline δόξα: the endings of the first two forms (nominative and accusative singular) follow καρδία, and the next two (genitive and dative singular) follow φωνή: hence the description of the paradigm of δόξα as "the mixed pattern".

3.16 MASCULINE CONSONANT STEM PARADIGM (D1.5): Most words of the First Declension are feminine, belonging to one or other of the above three paradigms. There are also, in the New Testament, 112 masculine common nouns of the First Declension, 111 of which have their stem ending in a consonant (usually -τ), and which all follow Paradigm D1.5, μαθητής. There are three differences between this paradigm and D1.2, the corresponding Feminine Consonant Stem Paradigm:

(a) in the nominative singular, masculine words are distinguished by taking an additional -ς as their final letter;

(b) this paradigm has a vocative case ending in -α (this is the second exception for us to note to the generalization that the vocative has the same form as the nominative [#2.27; see also #2.46]); and

(c) in the genitive singular, masculine First Declension words switch to the pattern of the Second Declension (see #2.40) and take -ου as their ending — which has the effect of making a difference between the forms of the nominative and genitive singular of this paradigm. NOTE: If you know the paradigm for φωνή, you can immediately see how μαθητής will decline: simply make the three "First Declension masculine" changes to the flexion of φωνή, and you have the paradigm for μαθητής.

3.17 MASCULINE ριε STEM PARADIGM (D1.4): There is only one masculine common noun of the First Declension with a "ριε" stem: νεανίας. However, there are twenty-four names (for example, Ἀνδρεας, "Andrew") which follow Paradigm D1.4. This paradigm differs from that of μαθητής (Paradigm D1.5) in the same way that καρδία differs from φωνή where μαθητής has -η, νεανίας has -α. NOTE: If you know the paradigm for καρδία, you can immediately see how veaviag will decline: simply make the three "First Declension masculine" changes (see #3.16) to the flexion of καρδία, and you have the paradigm for νεανίας. There is also a sixth First Declension paradigm — D1.6, the "long α" paradigm, followed by three rare words and thirty-two names such as Θωμᾶς, "Thomas". This differs from veaviag only in one form: the genitive singular ending is -α, not -ου.

3.18 PLURALS ALL THE SAME: In all cases in the plural, the First Declension nouns, both masculine and feminine, follow the endings of the feminine article.

3.19 AGREEMENT IN GENDER: As the article always agrees in gender with its noun, "the disciple" will be ὁ μαθητής, and "the disciples" will be οἱ μαθηταί. TEST: Translate: "of the young man".

3.2 FEMININE NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION

3.21 In #2.40 we met the masculine and neuter paradigms of the Second Declension, the most common noun group in the Greek New Testament. In the New Testament there are also fifty Second Declension nouns which are (or can be) feminine in gender. All these feminine nouns have their nominative singular in -ος and follow the paradigm of κύριος exactly. But when they take the article, it will be feminine gender, because the article always agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender and case (#2.33).

42 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

3.22 Twenty-eight such feminine Second Declension nouns occur in the Greek New Testament (listed, #D2.44), but most of them are used only a small number of times each. There are only five which are each used ten times or more in the Greek New Testament, and the two most common words of these five are used in the Selections in the Assignments for this Lesson.

3.23 Twenty-two of the masculine Second Declension words can also be feminine gender. Thus ἡ θεός is "the goddess" (as in Acts 19:37); παρθένος "a virgin", can refer either to a male or a female as indicated by the gender of the article (or the context, as in Revelation 14:4); and similarly διάκονος, "servant, deacon", can be used with either masculine or feminine article (or personal name, as in Romans 16:1) to refer respectively to a male or female servant or deacon. (These twenty-two words are listed in #D2.45.)

3.3 PRONOUNS

3.31 Pronouns that refer to people or things, like "I", "me", "us" "you", "her", "it", are called personal pronouns. You will recognize, below, a few forms which we have met already.

3.32 LEARN NOW the flexions of the 1st and 2nd person pronouns. As usual, learn them down the columns, for the 1st person (singular and plural) and then the 2nd person.

SINGULAR	1st	2nd	3rd m.	3rd f.	3rd n.	m.	f.	n.
Nominative	ἐγώ	σύ	αὐτός	αὐτή	αὐτό	οὗτος	αὕτη	τοῦτο
Accusative	ἐμέ/με	σέ/σε	αὐτόν	αὐτήν	αὐτό	τοῦτον	ταύτην	τοῦτο
Genitive	ἐμοῦ/μου	σοῦ/σου	αὐτοῦ	αὐτῆς	αὐτοῦ	τοῦτου	ταύτης	τοῦτου
Dative	ἐμοί/μοι	σοί/σοι	αὐτῷ	αὐτῇ	αὐτῷ	τούτῳ	ταύτῃ	τούτῳ
PLURAL
Nominative	ἡμεῖς	ὑμεῖς	αυτοί	αὐταί	αὐτά	οὗτοι	αὗται	ταῦτα
Accusative	ἡμᾶς	ὑμᾶς	αὐτούς	αὐτάς	αὐτά	τούτους	ταύτας	ταῦτα
Genitive	ἡμῶν	ὑμῶν	αὐτῶν	αὐτῶν	αὐτῶν	τούτων	τούτων	τούτων
Dative	ἡμῖν	ὑμῖν	αὐτοῖς	αὐταῖς	αὐτοῖς	τούτοις	ταύταις	τούτοις

(The English meanings for these forms are given in #A3.11.)

3.33 Notice the alternative forms which are found for the 1st person singular accusative, genitive and dative pronouns. In the style of some writers, the longer form is more emphatic than the shorter form; at other times the alternatives appear to be used without any distinction of meaning. Learn both forms of these pronouns together, as being alternatives. NOTE in #A3.13 how to distinguish ἡμεῖς and ὑμεῖς.

3.34 The third person personal pronoun is αὐτός and means "he/she/it/they", etc., depending upon number, gender, and case. (It has some other meanings as well, to be introduced in later Lessons.) Notice in its paradigm that αὐτός has endings identical with those of the article (plus the standard Second Declension "-ς" ending in the masculine nominative singular which is lacking in the article). The paradigm of αὐτός is provided here for convenient reference. NOTE THAT if you know the article, you already know how to decline αὐτός: just add the endings of the twenty-four forms of the article to the stem αὐτ-, and also the -ς to the masculine nominative singular form, and there you have it!

3.35 Words like "this/these" and "that/those" are called demonstratives. When a demonstrative is referring to something else (as in "this voice", "these words", "that hour", "those days"), it is a demonstrative adjective. It stands in what is called the "predicative position", in front of the article, as in οὗτος ὁ υἱός "this son" (John 12:34), or after the noun without the usual repetition of the article, ἡ φωνὴ αὕτη, "this voice" (John 12:30). (When used with a demonstrative the article is

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 43

not translated into English.) Like all other adjectives, a demonstrative adjective will agree with what it is referring to in number, gender, and case: notice the feminine form αὕτη used with "voice", a feminine noun.

3.36 When a demonstrative is used without reference to any other person or thing, it is a demonstrative pronoun, and it means, according to gender, "this man" (οὗτος), "this woman" (αὕτη) or "this thing" (τοῦτο). Thus Luke 22:56, Καὶ οὗτος σὺν αὐτῷ ἦν, "This man was also with him"; Acts 9:36, αὕτη ἦν πλήρης ἀγαθῶν ἔργων, "This woman was full of good works"; 1 Timothy 2:3, τοῦτο καλόν, "This thing [is] good". Similarly for the plurals: οὗτοι means "these men" (or "these people", both men and women); αὗται, "these women"; and ταῦτα, "these things".

3.37 From looking at the paradigm of οὗτος, you can see how very similar it is to αὐτός, and to the article. Like the article, it begins with a "τ" in all cases except the nominatives of the masculine and feminine singular and plural, where instead of the "τ" there is a rough breathing. οὗτος though, has the unique feature that there are two forms of the stem, one with the diphthong ου- and the other with αυ-: can you discern the pattern for when one or the other of these diph-thongs occurs in a word form? (If you cannot see the pattern, the answer is in #A3.16.) NOTE that only the breathing and accent differentiate αὐτή (feminine nominative singular of αὐτός) and αὕτη (feminine nominative singular of οὗτος); and αὐταί (feminine nominative plural of αὐτός) and αὕτη (feminine nominative plural of οὗτος): the letters of the words are the same. Care needs to be taken, therefore, to identify these forms correctly. This is the third occasion when the breathing/accent on a word needs particularly to be noted (see also #A1.37 and #2.88).

3.38 ἐκεῖνος is the demonstrative pronoun/adjective meaning "that/that one". It is declined with the same endings as οὗτος but without any change in the stem of the word. Like οὗτος, it takes the predicative position when used with a noun (#3.35).

3.4 CLUES FROM THE AGREEMENT OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVES

3.41 Because the article and adjectives always agree with their noun in number, gender, and case, they often provide valuable clues to the identification of the number, gender, and case of nouns in a sentence when these might otherwise not be known to you.

3.42 Thus when you first see the word μισθόν, it is not possible for you to know whether it is:

(a) μισθός (masculine, D2.1), in the accusative singular (like κύριον), or

(b) μισθόν (neuter, D2.2) (like ἔργον), in the nominative or accusative singular. This query is resolved when you see it with its article: τὸν μισθόν: if it were neuter, the form of the article would be "τό".

Similarly, for βασιλείας: is this

(a) βασιλείας (masculine, D1.4), i.e., the nominative singular of a First Declension masculine noun (like νεανίας), or

(b) the genitive singular of βασιλεία (feminine, D1.1), i.e. a First Declension feminine (like καρδίας), or

(c) the accusative plural of such a First Declension feminine? The article τῆς with βασιλείας resolves the question. Again, there are many word forms ending in "-α": ὄνομα, πνεῦμα, πρόβατα, θύρα, and so on. These forms can be clarified and deciphered when we take note of the form of the articles (and/or adjectives) used with them: τὸ ἐμὸν ὄνομα, τὸ πνεῦαμ, τὰ πρόβατα, ἡ θύρα.

3.5 THE PRESENT IMPERATIVE, SECOND PERSON PLURAL

3.51 In Lesson Two we noted the paradigm of λύω for the present indicative and interrogative active. We saw that the form λύετε could mean "you are loosing" or "are you loosing?" This particular form of the verb also happens to be the same for a command or request (that is, the imperative mode). So it can also mean, "Loose!" as an order to two or more people. Usually the context makes it plain whether the meaning is indicative, interrogative, or imperative.

44 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

3.52 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: In fact, a number of ambiguous sentences do exist in the Greek New Testament.

    (a) For example, Jesus said, πιστεύετε εἰς τὸν θεόν, καὶ εἰς ἐμὲ πιστεύετε (John 14:1). Is he making a statement, asking a question, or telling his disciples something that they are to do? Or could it be that the first πιστεύετε, "believe", is indicative and the second is imperative? This would give the meaning as, "You believe in God; believe also in me."

    (b) The most theologically significant of these places of uncertainty is 1 Corinthians 12:31a. In this verse Paul speaks of the Corinthians earnestly desiring the higher gifts. But the Greek of this verse can either be translated, "But eagerly desire the greater gifts" (NIV text), taking the verb ζηλοῦτε as an imperative, or, "But you are eagerly desiring the greater gifts" (NIV margin), taking the alternative possible meaning of ζηλοῦτε as an indicative, a statement of fact. The interpretation of the verb as an imperative (that is, an instruction) would be that the Corinthians (and Christians in general) must eagerly desire the greater gifts — and these gifts would then be seen as certain ones selected from the catalogue in 1 Corinthians 12:7 to 10 and/or 27 to 30. On the other hand, the verb can be taken as indicative. Then the interpretation is that Paul is stating that what they are doing is eagerly desiring the (in their opinion) greater gifts, whereas the right concern that they should have, which he is now setting before them, is somewhat different: first of all, that all gifts are important for the functioning of the church, the body of Christ (12:7, 12-27); secondly, that the Christian does not choose his/her gifts but the Lord allocates them (12:11, 18, 28); and thirdly, that he (Paul) will now show them the most excellent way (chapter 13). Knowing Greek will not automatically solve ambiguities of this kind — but it certainly can enable us to be aware of them, should prevent us from building doctrinal structures on such ambiguous passages, and will (hopefully) encourage us to read them more carefully in their total context, and check them out in commentaries on the Greek text of the New Testament.

3.6 TIME, ASPECT, AND CONJUGATION

3.61 PAST TIME IN GREEK: Unlike English, Greek does not have a "past tense" as such. Instead, past time is indicated in Greek by prefixing the past time morph (called an augment) to the beginning of the verb lexal. There are two kinds of past time morph, one for verb lexals beginning with a consonant, and another for those beginning with a vowel.

3.62 SYLLABIC AUGMENT: If the verb lexal begins with a consonant, the augment is an additive morph, the addition of ε-. This is called the syllabic augment because it adds a syllable to the word. For example: with the syllabic augment added, the verb lexal βαλ- becomes ἐβαλ-.

3.63 TEMPORAL AUGMENT: If the verb lexal begins with a vowel, the augment consists instead of the lengthening of this vowel. Thus this augment is a process morph: a process of change which is applied to something that is already part of the verb form.¹⁸ (For an earlier instance, see #2.82.) This process of lengthening to indicate past time is called the temporal augment. The temporal augment lengthens: α- into η-, ε- into η-, and ο- into ω-. (For example, the verb lexal ἐλθ- becomes ἠλθ-.) If the short vowel which is being lengthened is part of a diphthong with iota, the iota goes subscript on the lengthened vowel (#1.56). (For example, the lexal of αἰτέω, αἰτε-, becomes ᾐτε-: see further, #4.51.)

3.64 GREEK ASPECT: There are three tenses in Greek which take the augment, i.e. which indicate past time: the aorist (pronounced air-rist, rhyming with "fairest"), the imperfect, and the pluperfect. When they have the augment they all refer to the past; the difference between them is the kind of action which they indicate. This feature is called the verb's aspect. The aorist tense indicates punctiliar aspect¹⁹: the whole aspect of the verb is regarded as a point — hence the name "punctiliar". The imperfect tense is durative aspect¹⁹: the emphasis of this aspect is upon the

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 45

duration of the activity, which is being shown to be of an ongoing, repeated, or incomplete nature — action still in progress at the time being spoken of. The pluperfect tense is perfective aspect¹⁹: the action has been brought to a completion, with consequences that have been continuing. (Further details about aspect will be given in the next Lesson.)

3.65 THREE AORIST PATTERNS: In Greek there are three different patterns of the formation of the aorist tense. All three have exactly the same meaning. (This is similar in principle to the different ways which English has of forming a past tense: consider for example the English past tense forms of "bake" ["baked"], "make" ["made"], "take" ["took"], and "wake" ["woke"].) These three aorist patterns are called first aorist, second aorist, and third aorist. The "first aorist" pattern will be set out in Lesson Four, and the "third aorist" pattern in Lesson Seven.

3.66 THE SECOND AORIST: The "second aorist" pattern prefixes the augment to the verb lexal, and adds a special set of pronoun endings which are somewhat different from the set for the present tense. The second aorist flexions are given in #3.81 for the lexals βαλ- (the verb stem of βάλλω, "I throw") and ἐλθ- (which has no durative [present] form — it has to make use of the durative flexions of another verb, ἔρχομαι, "I come"; see #3.69).

3.67 THREE CONJUGATIONS: Families of verbs are called conjugations. There are three verb "families" or conjugations in New Testament Greek. Verbs which possess second aorist forms comprise the Second Conjugation (C2); verbs which have third aorist forms and/or a lexical form ending in -μι comprise the Third Conjugation (C3); all other verbs have first aorist forms, conjugate their flexions like λύω, and comprise the First Conjugation (C1).

3.68 INHERENT ASPECT: A verb lexal possesses inherent aspect — that is, a lexal always is, in itself, either durative or punctiliar aspect. First Conjugation verbs have durative lexals; Second and Third Conjugation verbs have punctiliar lexals.

3.69 SUPPLETIVE VERBS: Seven verbs which are Second Conjugation (and whose lexals therefore are inherently punctiliar) are defective and are incapable of forming a present tense (durative) form, and instead have to utilize the durative forms from another defective verb. These are known as suppletive verbs. Three of these verbs are to be noted this Lesson, all of which are very common in the Greek New Testament:

Lexal	Second Aorist	Associated Present Tense
ἐλθ- ἰδ- εἰπ-	ἦλθον I came εἶδον I saw εἶπον I spoke/said	ἔρχομαι I come ὁράω I see λέγω I speak/say

NOTE: Make out vocabulary cards for these words.

3.7 COMPOUND VERBS

3.71 A very large number of verbs in the Greek New Testament are compound verbs, that is, verbs compounded of a simple or simplex verb and a preposition that has been added to the beginning of it. The meaning of the simplex verb is then affected by the preposition.

3.72 Sometimes compound verbs have meanings that are a compound of the meanings of the simplex verb and the preposition. Examples: ἐκ/ἐξ, "out [of]"; βάλλω, "I throw"; ἐκβάλλω, "I throw out, drive out, send away"; ἦλθον, "I came"; ἐξῆλθον, "I came out, departed". In contrast, numerous other compound verbs have meanings that are quite different from those of the preposition plus original simplex verbs. Thus: ἀπό, "from"; ἔχω, "I have"; ἀπέχω, "I have in full".

46 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

3.73 NOTE: When a compound verb is augmented, the augment goes between the preposition and the simplex verb. Thus: the second aorist form ἐξέβαλον, from ἐκβάλλω. (NOTE ALSO that the preposition in front of the augment is ἐξ not ἐκ, because in this form of the word it is followed by a vowel — see #1.75.)

3.8 PARADIGMS FOR THE IMPERFECT OF EIMI AND THE SECOND AORIST ACTIVE

3.81	IMPERFECT OF εἰμί	SECOND AORIST ACTIVE
S 1 2 3 P 1 2 3	ἤμην I was ἦς/ἦσθα you were ἦν he/she/it was ἤμεθα we were ἦτε you were ἦσαν they were	ἔβαλον I threw ἦλθον I came ἔβαλες you threw ἦλθες you came ἔβαλε(ν) he/she/it threw ἦλθε(ν) he/she/it came ἐβάλομεν we threw ἤλθομεν we came ἐβάλετε you threw ἤλθετε you came ἔβαλον they threw ἦλθον they came

3.82 The area of meaning for ἦλθον includes "I went" as well as "I came".

3.83 Notice that the second aorist forms for the first person singular and for the third person plural are identical. When one of these forms is encountered, it is therefore necessary to examine the context carefully for clues that indicate which of these two possibilities is in fact the right one. Usually such indications will be available — otherwise the sentence will be ambiguous in Greek.

3.9 THE VERB MORPH SLOTS

3.91 All the information about the total meaning of a particular verb form is conveyed through the morphs of which it is made up. These morphs can be thought of in various ways (READ #A3.3). It is important to be able to recognize each morph swiftly, and thus to "read" the information that it contains.

3.92 There are altogether nine categories of morph which can occur in a verb (though no more than six will be found in any given verb form). The places where these morphs can occur in a verb are called morph slots.

3.93 The morphs of a verb can be set out so as to show which slot each occupies. Identifying the morphs of a verb form in this way is called morphological analysis" or morphologizing. The neutral morph is placed in the aspect slot (Slot 7). The verbs that we have met in Lessons Two and Three have morphs which occupy either two, three, four or five of the nine available slots. They can be shown as follows (using as an example the first person plural forms of εἰμί, λύω, βάλλω, ἐκβάλλω):

3.94 Where a morph consists of the lengthening of a phoneme, this is indicated by a capital L in the column for that morph. Thus:

VERB FORM	1 PREPOSITION	2 PAST	3	4 LEXAL	5	6	7 ASPECT	8	9 ENDING
ἐσμεν				ἐσ					μεν
λύομεν				λυ			ο		μεν
ἐβάλομεν		ἐ		βαλ			ο		μεν
ἐξεβάλομεν	ἐξ	ε		βαλ			ο		μεν
λύω				λυ			ο		L(="I")
ἦλθον		L		ἐλθ			ο		ν
ἐξήλθετε	ἐξ	L		ελθ			ε		τε

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 47

ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON THREE

1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms which now need to be learnt by heart are:
    4. The first and second person personal pronouns (ἐγώ and σύ, #3.32);
    5. The imperfect of εἰμί (#3.81);
    6. The paradigm of the second aorist (either ἔβαλον or ἦλθον, #3.81).
NOTE: Follow the same learning pattern as for previous Lessons, and make use of the Practice Sheet in your Workbook.

2. LEARNING THE FIRST DECLENSION: Compare the feminine flexion of the article with the five paradigms of the First Declension. Learn to recognize the forms of the First Declension by noting similarities and differences between their endings and the article.

3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in Appendix #A3.

4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson.

5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally the thirty Selections from the Greek New Testament. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the case(s) which they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it.

6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Write out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 3 (for -Lesson Three") in the top lefthand corner of each side of each Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. [Don't forget to put on your Preposition Cards the case(s) taken by each preposition.]

PREPOSITIONS

ἀπό (+gen) from εἰς (+acc) into to (for) ἐν (+dat) in, at, with (#2.65) ἔναντι (+gen) in the presence of

ἐντός (+gen) within, in the midst of μετά, μετ’, μεθ’ { (+acc) (+gen) after with παρά (+acc) beside περί (+gen) concerning

A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK

(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.)

For needed vocabulary, check through the English side of your Vocabulary Cards.

A1.	"We (emphatic) have the peace of God in our hearts."
A2.	Concerning John, Jesus said to his disciples,
A3.	"I say to you, he (emphatic) is a prophet of God."
A4.	"O Lord, you are sending your prophets to us."
A5.	God sends his son into our world, and we see his glory.
A6.	Jesus, you came to us out of heaven, and you spoke to me.
A7.	The teacher said, "I (emphatic) tell you, the law is good."
A8.	"I perceive that this is the word of truth from God."
A9.	The king sees Jesus but does not hear his voice.
A10.	They threw the lamb into the field. This was not good.

48 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A11.	Jesus said to the man, "You (emphatic) have a demon."
A12.	The Lord came into the field with his disciples.
A13.	The woman saw Jesus and said, "I see him beside my house."
A14.	She came into her house and Jesus hears her voice.
A15.	She (emphatic) says, "Does he see me and is he speaking to me?"
A16.	Jesus said to her, "I saw that you were in that place."

B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

(NOTE: These are Selections from the verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to read at this stage.)

	SELECTION	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
B1.	Τίς ἐστιν οὗτος ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:34)	Σαμαρείτης, -ου, ὁ: a Samaritan
B2.	Ἰδοὺ γάρ, ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ ἐντὸς ὑμῶν ἐστίν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 17:21)	Σίμων: Simon; Ἰωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Jonas
B3.	Καὶ σὺ ἦσθα μετὰ Ἰησοῦ τοῦ Γαλιλαίου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 26:69)	Γαλιλαῖος -α -ον: Galilean
B4.	Ὁ πατὴρ ἡμῶν Ἀβραάμ ἐστιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:39)	*πατήρ, -τρός, ὁ: father
B5.	εἶπον, Υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ εἰμι; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:36)	*εἶπον: I said [#3.69]
B6.	πιστεύετε εἰς τὸν θεόν, καὶ εἰς ἐμὲ πιστεύετε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 14:1)	*πιστεύω: I believe
B7.	Ταῦτα δὲ ὑμῖν ἐξ ἀρχῆς οὐκ εἶπον, ὅτι μεθ’ ὑμῶν ἤμην. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 16:4)	*ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ: beginning (ruler); *ὅτι: because (that)
B8.	Θωμᾶς … εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ὁ κύριός μου καὶ ὁ θεός μου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 20:28)	Θωμᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Thomas
B9.	Ἡ γὰρ καρδία σου οὐκ ἔστιν εὐθεῖα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ 8:21)	εὐθεῖα: right, upright (fem. adj.)
B10.	ἔσται ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τῆς γῆς τρεῖς ἡμέρας καὶ τρεῖς νύκτας. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 12:40)	ἔσται: [he] will be; *τρεῖς: three; *νύξ, -υκτός, ἡ night
B11.	ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν, κηρύσσων τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ, … πιστεύετε ἐν τῷ εὐαγγελίῳ (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:14-15)	*ἦλθον: I came [#3.69]; Γαλιλαία, -ας, ἡ: Galilee; *κηρύσσων: preaching (participle)
B12.	Κύριε, κύριε, οὐ τῷ σῷ ὀνόματι … δαιμόνια ἐξεβάλομεν (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 7:22)	*ὄνομα, -ατος, τό: name; *ἐκβάλλω: I drive out, cast out
B13.	Τὸ βάπτισμα Ἰωάννου ἐξ οὐρανοῦ ἦν, ἢ ἐξ ἀνθρώπων; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 11:30)	βάπτισμα, -ατος, τό: baptism; *ἤ: or (than)
B14.	Καὶ ὁ Ἰησοῦς … εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Οὐ μακρὰν εἶ ἀπὸ τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 12:34)	μακράν: far [adverb]
B15.	Σὺ εἶ μαθητὴς ἐκείνου· ἡμεῖς δὲ τοῦ Μωσέως ἐσμὲν μαθηταί. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 9:28)	*μαθητής, -οῦ, ὁ: disciple; *ἐκεῖνος -η -ο: that, that one; Μωϋσεύς, -έως, ὁ: Moses

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 49

	SELECTION	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
B16.	Ἄγουσιν οὖν τὸν Ἰησοῦν ἀπὸ τοῦ Καϊάφα εἰς τὸ πραιτώριον· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:28)	*ἄγω: I lead, bring; Καϊάφας: Caiaphas; πραιτώριον, -ου, τό: governor's residence
B17.	Ἐξῆλθεν οὖν πάλιν ἔξω ὁ Πιλάτος, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Ἴδε, ἄγω ὑμῖν αὐτὸν ἔξω (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:4)	*ἐξῆλθον: I came out; *πάλιν: again, once again; *ἔξω: outside
B18.	Οἱ ... μαθηταὶ ... οὐκ ... ἦσαν μακρὰν ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 21:8)
B19.	καὶ τὰ πρόβατα τῆς φωνῆς αὐτοῦ ἀκούει ... Εἶπεν οὖν πάλιν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἀμὴν ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ θύρα τῶν προβάτων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:3, 7)	πρόβατον, -ου, τό: sheep; *ἀκούω: I hear (takes genitive: #A3.42); *ἀμήν: truly; θύρα, -ας, ἡ; door
B20.	Καὶ λέγουσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ, Πόθεν ἡμῖν ἐν ἐρημίᾳ ἄρτοι; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 15:33)	ἐρημία, -ας, ἡ: a desert, deserted place
B21.	ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν, ἀπέχουσιν τὸν μισθὸν αὐτῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 6:2)	ἀπέχω: I receive (have) in full; μισθός, -ου, ὁ: reward (pay, wages)
B22.	Μετὰ ταῦτα εἶδον, καὶ ἰδού, θύρα ἀνεῳγμένη ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 4:1)	*εἶδον: I saw, looked [#3.69]; ἀνεῳγμένη: standing open (participle)
B23.	Ἰδού, ἐγὼ ἀποστέλλω ὑμᾶς ὡς πρόβατα ἐν μέσῳ λύκων· (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 10:16)	*ὡς: as, like; *μέσος, -η, -ον: the midst; λύκος, -ου, ὁ: wolf
B24.	Ἔσεσθε οὖν ὑμεῖς τέλειοι, ὥσπερ ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς τέλειός ἐστιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:48)	ἔσεσθε: you shall be (plural); τέλειος, -α, -ον: mature, perfect; οὐράνιος, -ον: heavenly
B25.	Ταῦτα εἶπεν Ἠσαΐας, ὅτε εἶδεν τὴν δόξαν αὐτοῦ (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:41)	Ἠσαΐας, -ου, ὁ: Isaiah; *δόξα, -ης, ἡ: glory
B26.	Περιπατῶν δὲ παρὰ τὴν θάλασσαν τῆς Γαλιλαίας εἶδεν δύο ἀδελφούς, Σίμωνα τὸν λεγόμενον Πέτρον, καὶ Ἀνδρέαν τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 4:18)	*περιπατῶν: walking; *θάλασσα, -ης, ἡ: sea; *δύο: two; *ἀδελφός, -οῦ, ὁ: brother; λεγόμενον: called (participle); Ἀνδρέας, -ου, ὁ: Andrew
B27.	Φωνὴ βοῶντος ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ, Ἑτοιμάσατε τὴν ὁδὸν κυρίου· (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:3)	βοῶντος: of one crying aloud (gen ptc); ἐρῆμος, -ου, ἡ: deserted place, desert; ἑτοιμάσατε: prepare; *ὁδός, -οῦ, ἡ: way
B28.	Οὗ γάρ εἰσιν δύο ἢ τρεῖς συνηγμένοι εἰς τὸ ἐμὸν ὄνομα, ἐκεῖ εἰμὶ ἐν μέσῳ αὐτῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 18:20)	οὗ: where; συνηγμένοι: gathered together; *ἐμός, -ή, -όν: my (adjective); *ἐκεῖ: there
B29.	Καὶ εὐθὺς τὸ πνεῦμα αὐτὸν ἐκβάλλει εἰς τὴν ἔρημον. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:12)	*εὐθύς: immediately; *πνεῦμα, -ατος, τό: Spirit (spirit), breath, wind
B30.	Τί οὖν; Ἠλίας εἶ σύ; Καὶ λέγει, Οὐκ εἰμί. Ὁ προφήτης εἶ σύ; ... Οὔ. Εἶπον οὖν αὐτῷ, Τίς εἶ; ... Τί λέγεις περὶ σεαυτοῦ; Ἔφη, Ἐγὼ φωνὴ βοῶντος ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ, Εὐθύνατε τὴν ὁδὸν κυρίου, καθὼς εἶπεν Ἠσαΐας ὁ προφήτης. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:21-23)	Ἠλίας, -ου, ὁ: Elijah; σεαυτοῦ: yourself (gen.); *ἔφη: he said; εὐθύνατε: make straight (imperative); *καθώς: just as

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LESSON FOUR

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE

4.1 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN

4.11 The relative pronoun is "who", "whose", "what", "which", etc. The paradigm for this is very similar to that for the article (see #2.4) except (a) that it always has an accent (the article does not have an accent in the forms ὁ, ἡ, οἱ and αἱ); (b) that it always commences with a rough breathing and never with a "τ"; and (c) that the masculine nominative singular has the standard ending "ς" (the corresponding form of the article is ὁ).

4.12 NOTE that the relative pronoun consists in fact solely of the endings for οὗτος (see #3,32), and its stem is simply the rough breathing.

4.13		Masc.		Fem.	Neut.
SINGULAR	Nominative	ὅς	who	ἥ	ὅ	which/what
	Accusative	ὅν	whom	ἥν	ὅ	which/what
	Genitive	οὗ	whose	ἧς	οὗ	of which/what
	Dative	ᾧ	to/for whom	ᾗ	ᾧ	to/for which/what
PLURAL	Nominative	οἵ	who	αἵ	ἅ	which/what
	Accusative	οὕς	whom	ἅς	ἅ	which/what
	Genitive	ὧν	whose	ὧν	ὧν	of which/what
	Dative	οἷς	to/for whom	αἷς	οἷς	to/for which/what

4.14 NOTE the accent: always an acute on the nominative and accusative forms (and under the rules of accentuation this usually changes to a grave before following words - see #E6); always a circumflex on the genitive and dative forms.

4.15 NOTE also that there are several forms of the relative pronoun which are differentiated from other words only by their accent and/or breathing: (a) the only difference between the forms ὅ, ἥ, οἵ and αἵ and forms for the article is that the relative pronoun has an accent (either an acute or a grave) while the article does not have an accent; (b) the word ἤ, which means "or" (L3/B13) or "than" (#7.48), differs in accent and breathing, and in breathing, respectively from the nominative singular feminine article ἡ and the nominative singular feminine relative ἥ; (c) compare similarly the accusative singular feminine relative ἥν with ἦν, the third person singular imperfect "he/she/it was" form from εἰμί (#3.81), and the genitive ἧς with ἦς, "you (singular) were" form from εἰμί; (d) the word "where", οὗ (see L3/B28) is identical with the masculine/neuter genitive singular relative οὗ, and differs in accent and breathing from οὐ, "not" (#2.94). (For other important accents, see #A4.23.)

4.16 The relative pronoun takes the gender and number of the word to which it refers (called its antecedent), and the case that is appropriate for its function in its own clause. However, in some sentences the writer will be found to have put the relative into the case of its antecedent. This is referred to as the "attraction of the relative".

4.17 The translation of the relative (for both singular and plural) is usually "who" etc. if personal gender (that is, masculine or feminine), or "what" or "which" etc. if neuter. Examples: "The Lord whom you seek will suddenly come ..."; "The body of which you all are members ..."; "You are my friends if you do what I command you." It needs to be remembered that "who", "what" and "which" are used according to the gender of the antecedent in English - the gender in Greek may be different (#2.13). in many cases the relative may be best translated "that": "The words that I have spoken to you ...".

50

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 51

4.2 THE REST OF THE ACTIVE VERB

4.21 So far we have met the present and second aorist of the indicative active verb (#2.81 and #3.81). Here now are the flexions for the remaining tenses and modes of the active of λύω:

	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular 1 2 3 Plural 1 2 3	Future Imperfect 1st Aorist Perfect λύσω ἔλυον ἔλυσα λέλυκα λύσεις ἔλυες ἔλυσας λέλυκας λύσει ἔλυε(ν) ἔλυσε(ν) λέλυκε(ν) λύσομεν ἐλύομεν ἐλύσαμεν λελύκαμεν λύσετε ἐλύετε ἐλύσατε λελύκατε λύσουσι(ν) ἔλυον ἔλυσαν λελύκασι(ν)	Present Aorist λύω λύσω λύῃς λύσῃς λύῃ λύσῃ λύωμεν λύσωμεν λύητε λύσητε λύωσι(ν) λύσωσι(ν)

		IMPERATIVE	Present	Aorist	Perfect
Singular	2	loose! (singular)	λῦε	λῦσον	(No forms
	3	let him loose (something)	λυέτω	λυσάτω	occur in
Plural	2	loose! (plural)	λύετε	λύσατε	the New
	3	let them loose (something)	λυέτωσαν	λυσάτωσαν	Testament)

INFINITIVE		to loose	λύειν	λῦσαι	λελυκέναι	to have loosed
PARTICIPLE	Masculine	loosing	λύων	λύσας	λελυκώς	having loosed
	Feminine		λύουσα	λύσασα	λελυκυῖα
	Neuter		λῦον	λῦσαν	λελυκός
	M/N Genitive		λύοντος	λύσαντος	λελυκότος

4.22 Greek indicates future time by adding the future time morph, -σ-, to the end of the verb lexal, in front of the present tense endings. Thus we can notice that the only difference between the forms of the present tense (#2.81) and the future tense is that the future tense forms contain the future time morph, -σ-. So λύσω means, "I will loose" (see further, #A4.12). The future tense forms thus have four morphs (seen best in, say, a form like λύσομεν): the lexal, future morph, neutral morph (#2.77), and pronoun morph. (Can you identify which they each are in λύσομεν?)

4.23 As we saw last Lesson (#3.61), Greek indicates past time by adding the past time morph, ε-, to the beginning of a verb lexal. Two of the above tenses, the imperfect and the first aorist, have ε-prefixed to their forms in the Indicative Mode, and this thus indicates that these are past time flexions. λύω is the model verb for the First Conjugation; that is, its aorist active indicative flexion follows, and thus shows us, the first aorist pattern.)

4.3 ASPECT

4.31 In Greek, the most important aspect of tense is the kind of action that is being referred to. This is called aspect, and it is where the major distinction between the different tenses lies. There are three aspects which a Greek verb can have: a verb denotes either:

(a) Durative, that is, linear or progressive action (where the emphasis is upon the duration or continuation of the action, so that it refers to an ongoing, repeated or incomplete action). Durative aspect is expressed by the present and imperfect tenses.

(b) Punctiliar, that is, point-of-time action (where the reference is to a specific, completed or once-for-all action, or where an action is viewed in its totality no matter how long it lasted, or the point of commencing or completing an action is being stressed). Punctiliar aspect is expressed by the aorist tense.

(c) Perfective, that is, accomplished action (where the present state resulting from, and/or present consequence of, a prior action are being stressed; "the meaning of the perfect is I am in the position of having done").²⁰ Perfective aspect is expressed by the present perfect and pluperfect tenses. (There is also a rare future perfect: See #C0.33.)

52 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

4.32 These aspects can be shown diagrammatically as:

(a)	Durative Aspect (Present and Imperfect Tenses):     Linear action:	⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ or ••••••••••••• ongoing action or repeated action
(b)	Punctiliar Aspect (Aorist Tense):     Point-of-time action:	• or ⚪ action viewed in its totality
(c)	Perfective Aspect (Present Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses):     Accomplished action:	•⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ action leading to a state

4.33 The present and imperfect tenses are always durative in aspect; the aorist is always punctiliar, and the present perfect (sometimes referred to simply as "the perfect") and pluperfect (the past tense of the perfect) are always perfective. The future tense stands outside the aspect system of the verb. and does not have any inherent aspect. Sometimes its meaning is durative (that is, referring to an ongoing action in the future); in some usages it may have punctiliar significance; and often the kind of action in the future is not indicated in the context. But in any case, if a future verb does have any such significance, this is only because of the lexical meaning of a given verb or because of the way a verb is being used in a particular context.²¹

4.34 The pluperfect tense is quite rare in the Greek New Testament (it occurs only 86 times²²), and therefore is not set out here; but it is a part of the verb system available for the use of the Greek speaker/writer, and it will be introduced in #7.8 — it is set out in Appendix C, #C1.1.

4.35 THE VERB'S ASPECT MORPH SLOT: How is aspect indicated in a verb? This differs to some extent depending upon whether the verb is First, Second, or Third Conjugation (#3.67). In First Conjugation verbs, aspect is indicated by the morph which is used in the verb's Aspect Morph Slot. We have seen (#3.93) that the structure of a verb consists of nine morph slots one of which — Slot 7 — is the Aspect Morph Slot. A different morph is placed in this slot to indicate forms of the durative, punctiliar, and perfective flexions of a verb.

4.36 INDICATING DURATIVE ASPECT: The lexal of every First Conjugation verb is inherently durative (#3.68), and therefore these verbs do not require to take any additional morph to make them durative: they already are durative. So when a durative form of a verb is being used, it has the neutral morph (-ε- or -ο-: see #2,77) in the aspect slot. The neutral morph has a "neutral" effect on the verb's aspect; the use of the neutral morph is indicating, "In this verb form, aspect is not being changed — the verb's inherent aspect still applies," Putting it round the other way: seeing that a First Conjugation verb is inherently durative, when such a verb form has the neutral morph in its Aspect Morph Slot that verb form must be either present or imperfect (the two durative tenses). It is worth noting at this point that the neutral morph is also found in the future tense (#4.22) and in the Second Aorist tense (that is, the aorist tense of the Second Conjugation; #3.81), again with the meaning that aspect is not being affected (the future tense stands outside the aspect system [#4.33], and the lexal of Second Conjugation verbs is inherently punctiliar [#3.68]).

4.37 INDICATING PUNCTILIAR ASPECT: A First Conjugation verb indicates punctiliar aspect by taking the punctiliar morph -σα- in the aspect slot (Slot 7) instead of the neutral morph. The effect of putting the punctiliar morph in the aspect slot is to change the verb form to punctiliar aspect. This morph is an elision morph, which means that whenever it is followed by a vowel in the verb's next morph the punctiliar morph -σα- elides its vowel, -α-, to become simply -σ-. The situation can be summed up thus: the punctiliar morph is

(a) -σα- before consonants and form final (that is, when it is at the end of the word form); and

(b) -σ- before vowels. There are one complete flexion (the subjunctive) and three individual forms in the above λύω paradigm (#4.21) where the next morphs commence with a vowel: 3rd person singular indicative, -ε-; 2nd person singular imperative, -ον; and the infinitive, -αι (note that the -α- here is part of the infinitive morph, or else under this elision rule it would have elided in front of the -ι). Therefore in all these cases the punctiliar morph consists of just -σ-, as a result of the elision of the -α-.

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 53

NOTE VERY CAREFULLY that the -σ- of the punctiliar morph will always by followed by a vowel: either the -α- of its own morph, or else the vowel that has caused that -α- to elide; therefore a -σ- followed by a consonant could NEVER be the punctiliar morph. The aorist, ἔλυσα, means "I loosed" [see #A4.13(a)].

4.38 INDICATING PERFECTIVE ASPECT: Perfective aspect is indicated by the perfective morph -κα- in the aspect slot (Slot 7). The effect of putting the perfective morph in the aspect slot is to change the verb form to perfective aspect. Like the other aspect morphs, the perfective morph, -κα- is an elision morph, the -α- eliding before a following vowel.

NOTICE that this -κα- becomes -κε- in one particular form, in front of the infinitive ending -ναι.

4.39 REDUPLICATION: There is a second distinguishing feature of the perfective aspect, called reduplication, which means taking the first letter of the lexal, if it is a single consonant, and doubling it, and then separating the two letters with the vowel -ε-. Thus λυ- becomes first λλυ- and then λελυ. This creates the reduplication morph (for λύω, λε-), which occupies Slot 3 of the verb's nine morph slots. The perfect, λέλυκα, means "I have loosed". [See #A4.13(b) and A4.14.]

4.4 MODE

4.41 THE CONCEPT OF MODE: In #2.72 we were introduced to the concept of the verb's mode. This feature of the verb is referred to by some grammarians as "mood", but as it deals with the type of statement being made about an action and not with overtones of feelings, "mode" (the term used by Robertson, Davis, and others) is a more appropriate and much preferable designation. A. T. Robertson says, "Mode (Latin, modus) deals with the manner of the affirmation. Voice and tense deal with the action, not the affirmation ... The modes, like the tenses, deal with the statement, not with the facts in the case."17

4.42 INDICATIVE MODE: So far we have been learning about flexions of the verb's indicative mode. The indicative mode "indicates" something; i.e. it is used for making a statement (or asking a question) about what is: the actual circumstances of whatever is being considered. From the flexions of λύω given in #4.21, notice that the aorist tense only has the augment in the indicative mode, for only in the indicative does the aorist refer to past time. In contrast, the aorist does not have the augment in the subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, or participle (or optative), because these do NOT refer to past time. They refer to punctiliar aspect, in contrast with the present tense, which designates durative aspect. The reduplication in the perfect tense is a perfective aspect morph, and quite unrelated to past time, and so is kept in all modes.

4.43 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE: The next mode for us to learn is the subjunctive mode. This mode is used when making a statement (or asking a question) about what might be: the conditional, the potential, the possible, the hypothetical, etc. It is therefore translated by words such as "may", "might", "could", "would", "should", "[if he] were to", "[if it] happens to", and similarly. Your translation of a subjunctive should aim to bring out the uncertainty which is being indicated by the use of this mode.

4.44 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE:

    (a) Tenses and Meanings: There are flexions of the subjunctive mode for each of the three aspects, durative, punctiliar, and perfective. But although a perfect subjunctive existed, it was rarely used — the only two tenses of the subjunctive in common use were the present and aorist. The difference between them is solely one of aspect, that is, type of action (#4.31, #4.32).

    (b) Subjunctive Morph: The subjunctive morph is a process morph¹⁸ not an additive morph - it is a process of change, something done to a word form, not something added to it. The subjunctive morph is the lengthening of the neutral morph. Thus the neutral morph is the carrier for the subjunctive process morph.

54 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

(c) Present Subjunctive: A comparison of the present subjunctive with the present indicative (#4,21 with #2.81) will reveal the nature of the subjunctive process morph: the lengthening of the neutral morph in each form. Note that it cannot lengthen further when it is already long (thus, indicative first person singular form λύω remains λύω in the subjunctive). Where the neutral morph is part of a diphthong with ι the ι goes subscript to the lengthened neutral morph (thus, λύεις ⟶ λύῃς, λύει ⟶ λύῃ); where the neutral morph is part of a diphthong with υ the -υ- is lost from the word altogether (thus, λύουσιν ⟶ λύωσιν).

(d) Aorist Subjunctive: The aorist subjunctive flexion is formed from the present subjunc-tive by adding the punctiliar morph -σα- in front of the lengthened neutral morph. But notice that this means: (a) that the punctiliar morph will always come in front of a vowel (the lengthened neutral morph) and therefore it always elides to -σ-, and is never -σα- (#4.37); and (b) that the aorist subjunctive takes the present tense form of the pronoun endings rather than the pronoun endings used for the aorist indicative.

4.45 WORDS REQUIRING THE SUBJUNCTIVE: The words ἵνα ("in order that") and ἄν ("ever" as in the word "whoever", indicating indefiniteness) and any words compounded with ἄν (such as ἐάν, "if ever", from εἰ, "if") always take the subjunctive after them. [There are two constructions with ἄν that do not take the subjunctive, dealt with in #4.76(d) and #10.82.] These words therefore act as indicators that a subjunctive is coming. (See further, #A4.2.)

4.46 IMPERATIVE MODE: The imperative mode is used for any form of requesting: begging, entreating, praying, exhorting, commanding. NOTE (#4.21) that Greek has a third person imperative, for which there is no equivalent form in English. We can approximate the meaning as "let (him/her/it/them) carry out the action of the verb". In the imperative, once again (as in the subjunctive), the difference between the three tenses (present, aorist, and perfect) is one of aspect, and has nothing to do with time. The present imperative indicates that the action expressed in the verb is ongoing, continued or repeated; the aorist imperative implies that the action is not ongoing, continued or repeated. The aorist imperative is the one that is normally used unless there is some reason to indicate durative action. With the negative (μή — see #4.49), the present imperative expresses the prohibition of an act already begun: "Do not continue doing, that is, stop doing, (the action of the verb)". The prohibition of an act not yet begun — "Do not begin doing (the action of the verb)" — is expressed by μή with the aorist subjunctive.

4.47 INFINITIVE MODE: The infinitive is used: to complete the thought or the action of the main verb; in the place of a noun (in which case it will usually have the definite article, and is referred to as the articular infinitive, #9.86); in indirect speech; to express purpose or result. The infinitive can have a subject (which is put in the accusative case, not the nominative [#9.43(c)]), and it can also govern an object. (The infinitive is discussed more fully in #10.7.)

4.48 THE PARTICIPLE: The participle is given here (#4.21) for the masculine, feminine and neuter nominative singular, and the masculine/neuter genitive singular. These are the only forms needed for the moment, and (as will be explained in #8.15) they enable the whole of a participle's flexions to be known.

NOTE that the second aorist participle, infinitive, imperative forms take the neutral morph and therefore have the same endings as the present participle and infinitive, not those of the first aorist. As the aorist does not take an augment outside the indicative mode (#4.42), the second aorist form for the infinitive and participle will be without the augment.

      For ἦλθον this gives ἐλθεῖν and ἐλθών, -ουσα, -ον;

      and for εἶδον this gives ἰδεῖν and ἰδών, -ουσα, -ον;

      but for εἶπον we find εἰπεῖν and εἰπών, -ουσα, -ον.

NOTE (a) that the second aorist infinitive ends in -ειν, as does the present infinitive, rather than -σαι, like the first aorist infinitive;

    (b) that the second aorist imperative endings are also similar to the present imperative of λύω.

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 55

4.49 THE NEGATIVE: The word οὐ/οὐκ/οὐχ/οὐχί (#2.94) is used as the negative with verbs in the indicative mode. A completely different word, μή, is used as the negative with all other modes. Both negatives go in front of the word to which they refer. The two words can be used together, in the order οὐ μή, as an emphatic negative, which is normally then followed by the subjunctive [sometimes by the subjunctival future, #4.76(d)].

4.5 LINGUISTIC MODIFICATION RULES

4.50

Most verbs modify their lexals in taking the augment when the lexal begins with a vowel, and in adding a morph which is, or which begins with, a consonant. The rules are:

4.51 THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT RULE: Remember, those verbs with lexals which begin with a short vowel take the temporal augment (#3.63) to indicate past time. That is, for these verbs the augment is not an additive morph but a process morph: the changing of the short vowel to the corresponding long vowel.

		Present	Imperfect
If a lexal begins with α, it lengthens this to η.	Example:	ἀκούω	ἤκουον
If a lexal begins with ε, it lengthens this to η.	Example:	ἐλπίζω	ἤλπιζον
If a lexal begins with ο, it lengthens this to ω.	Example:	ὀφείλω	ὤφειλον

If the short vowel is part of a diphthong with iota, the short vowel lengthens in accordance with this rule and the iota becomes subscript.

		Present	Imperfect
If a lexal begins with αι, this diphthong becomes ῃ.	Example:	αἰτέω	ἤτουν
If a lexal begins with ει, this diphthong becomes ῃ.	Example:	εἰκάζω	ᾔκαζον†
If a lexal begins with οι, this diphthong becomes ῳ.	Example:	οἰκοδομέω	ᾠκοδόμουν
There are a small number of verbs beginning with ε- which, for particular linguistic reasons (to be explained in #C8.7) lengthen the ε- to ει- instead of η-.	Example:	ἔχω	εἶχον

† There is no New Testament example from a verb commencing with ει-; for the sake of completeness of the pattern, this example has been drawn from a Greek verb used outside the New Testament, εἰκάζω, "I liken, compare, conjecture, imagine". The root εἰπ- does not lengthen its epsilon, but forms its aorist as εἶπον (#4.48).

4.52 ADDING PREPOSITIONS: A preposition occupies the first of the verb's nine morph slots. When prepositions ending in a vowel (except πρό and περί) are added to a simplex verb to make a compound verb (see #3.7), the final vowel elides completely before a vowel (including the augment). The nine prepositions which elide their final vowel in this way (called the eliding prepositions) are: ἀνά, ἀντί, ἀπό, διά, ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά and ὑπό. When adding the preposition ἐκ/ἐξ, to a verb form beginning with a vowel (including the augment, which occupies Slot 3), it is ἐξ (#1 .75).

4.53 SHORT VOWEL LENGTHENING RULE: Where a verb lexal ends in a short vowel, this vowel regularly lengthens when followed by a morph beginning with a consonant:

		Present	Future
If a lexal ends with α, it lengthens this to η.	Example:	τιμάω	τιμήσω
If a lexal ends with ε, it lengthens this to η.	Example:	λαλέω	λαλήσω
If a lexal ends with ο, it lengthens this to ω.	Example:	πληρόω	πληρώσω

This is "the Short Vowel Lengthening Rule".

4.54 AMALGAMATION RULES FOR LABIALS AND PALATALS:

    (a) LABIAL AMALGAMATION RULE: When a verb lexal ends in a labial (π, β, φ, ψ: see #1.69), the labial combines with a following σ into ψ. Example: γράφω, future γράψω).

    (b) PALATAL AMALGAMATION RULE: When a verb lexal ends in a palatal (κ, γ, χ, ξ, σσ: see #1.69), the palatal combines with a following σ into ξ. Example: ἄγω, future ἄξω.

56 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

4.55 DENTAL DROP-OUT RULE:

When a verb lexal ends in a dental (τ, δ, θ, ζ), the dental drops out before a following consonant.	Example: δοξάζω, perfect δεδόξακα.
When a verb lexal ends in -πτ-, the -τ- drops out under this rule, and the -π- then combines with a following -σ- to give -ψ- in accordance with #4.54(a).	Example: καλύπτω, future καλύψω.

4.56 FUTURE OF LIQUID VERBS: When a verb lexal ends in a liquid (see #1.69), either oral (-λ-, -ρ-) or nasal (-μ-, -ν-), that verb (called a liquid verb after the final phoneme of its lexal) cannot add -σ- to the liquid: these phonemes — liquids and sigma — are not compatible in Greek. The liquid verbs form their future differently:

    (a) A liquid verb adds -ε- as its future time morph instead of -σ-. The added -ε- then contracts with the vowel of the ending into a long vowel or diphthong. (See further, #A4.23. This contraction occurs in accordance with linguistic rules to be introduced later [#6.8].)

    (b) If the lexal of the present tense ends in double -λ-, then outside the present and imperfect tenses the verb also drops the final lambda.

    (c) If the lexal of the present tense has a diphthong in -ι- before the liquid, then outside the present and imperfect tenses it drops the iota. For examples of such verbs, see #4.59.

4.57 AORIST OF LIQUID VERBS: The fact that a liquid verb cannot add sigma to its lexal also affects the formation of the aorist tense, which non-liquid verbs form by adding the morph -σα-.

    (a) To form the aorist of a liquid verb: replace the future morph and neutral morph of the future tense with the aorist morph -α-, and prefix the augment. But then, because liquids and sigma are not compatible in Greek, the sigma of the -σα- slides off the liquid, leaving just the -a-as the aorist morph in such a word. However, if the lexal ends in -ε- plus ρ, λ, or ν, then in compensation for the loss of this -σ- it lengthens -ε- to -ει- before the liquid. The end result for these verbs is that their punctiliar morph (that is, what marks the punctiliar aspect, aorist tense) is the iota before the liquid plus the alpha after it [which can be written as ι.α, where the dot between -ι- and -α- represents the liquid]. For examples of such verbs, see #4.59.

    (b) Note that when a verb lexal ends in a liquid, the third person singular form of the aorist will have no visible punctiliar morph: because it is a liquid, the -σ- of the punctiliar morph will have slid off, and because the ending added for the third person singular is a vowel, the -α- will have elided. Thus there is nothing in Slot 7 (between the lexal and the pronoun morph), where you would otherwise have expected an aspect morph. When there is nothing (zero) in a slot where some-thing was expected, that "zero" is itself informative. This is called the zero morph, written by the symbol Ø. Thus when a verb lexal ends in a liquid, and there is nothing (zero) in Slot 7, followed by the third person singular pronoun ending, this data informs you that the verb form is aorist.

4.58 PERFECT OF LIQUID VERBS: If the lexal of a liquid verb in the future tense:

(a) is a monosyllable (that is, not counting prepositions in a compound verb), and ends in -ε- plus the liquid, then that lexal changes the -ε- into -α- in forming its perfect.

(b) ends in -ιν-, then the -ν- is dropped before the endings of the perfect.

4.59 EXAMPLES: The following verbs illustrate these various linguistic modifications:

PRESENT	MEANING	FUTURE	FIRST AORIST	PERFECT
σύρω	drag	συρέω	ἔσυρα	σέσυρκα
σκύλλω	trouble	σκυλέω	ἔσκυλα	—
φαίνω	shine/appear	φανέω	ἔφανα	—
δέρω	thrash	δερέω	ἔδειρα	—
ἀγγέλλω	announce	ἀγγελέω	ἤγγειλα	ἤγγελκα
στέλλω	send	στελέω	ἔστειλα	ἔσταλκα
σπείρω	sow	σπερέω	ἔσπειρα	ἔσπαρκα
κρίνω	judge	κρινέω	ἔκρινα	κέκρικα

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 57

The -έω of the future forms then contracts in each instance into -ῶ. Fuller information about forming liquid verbs is given in #C1.81—C1.89.

Some verbs exhibit various irregularities. For the present, these verbs are used only in forms which will be recognizable by these rules.

4.6 DOUBLE MORPHS

4.61 DOUBLE FUTURE MORPH: The verb θέλω ("I wish, want") adds a double future morph. In accordance with the rule for the future of liquid verbs, it adds -ε- to become "θελέω", and next it adds the usual -σ- (#4.22) as well, and then follows the Short Vowel Lengthening Rule (#4.53) to make its future θελήσω. (Several other liquid verbs also take this double future morph; they are listed in #C1.88.)

4.62 DOUBLE AUGMENT: A small number of verbs take a double augment. Thus θέλω takes the syllabic augment (#3.62), giving "ἔθελον", and then takes the temporal augment (#3.63) to form its imperfect of ἤθελον. Similarly its aorist is ἠθέλησα (not "ἐθέλησα"). Other verbs taking a double augment are δύναμαι, "I am able", μέλλω, "I intend", and ὁράω, "I see".

4.63 TRIPLE AUGMENT: ἀνοίγω ("I open") is a compound of ἀνά with οἴγω, and is double augmented in the aorist to ἀνέῳξα. Some writers have applied the temporal augment to the preposition, giving the form ἤνοιξα (which strictly speaking is grammatically incorrect, but shows that they thought of it not as a compound but as a simplex verb). These augmentations are also found combined together, so that the form ἠνέῳξα (triple augment!) also occurs in the New Testament.

4.7 GUIDELINES ON HOW TO DECIPHER A VERB

4.71 First, locate the verb. If it is not one you recognize at once, it can be identified (a) by its ending, which you know from your memorized paradigms (even if you don't know the rest of it); (b) because of a negative in front of it; or (c) by a process of elimination, because you recognize the words around it as nouns or other parts of speech.

4.72 Does it have a reduplication in -ε-, on the model of λέλυκα? Then it is a present perfect (or a pluperfect if it also has an augment and/or the morph -ει- in its Slot 8).

4.73 Does it have an augment? Remember (a) to look for the augment between the preposition and the verb lexal in compound words, and (b) that the augment may be contained in an initial long vowel or diphthong. If it has an augment, does it also have -σα- (or -σ- before a vowel) between the verb lexal and the ending? If so, it is a first aorist indicative. If not, then it is either a second or third aorist or an imperfect. Strip off the augment and ending, substitute -ω, and if it is an imperfect you should find your word now in the lexicon. If not, check it out as a second aorist: try it with the augment and the first person singular second aorist ending and see if that form is in the lexicon. If it is, it will tell you the corresponding first person singular of the present active. If you have no success with these efforts, go on to #4.74.

4.74 Does it have -σα- (or -σ- before a vowel) between the lexal and the ending? If so, and it also has an augment, then it is a first aorist indicative. If it has -σ- but no augment, then it is either a future or a first aorist in a mode other than the indicative. Check to see if the endings are those of the future indicative or those of the aorist subjunctive, imperative, or infinitive. (Remember: that the future and the aorist subjunctive have the same form for the first person singular; that a future -σ- will always be followed by a neutral morph; that -σα- always indicates a first aorist.) But what verb does it come from? Strip off the -σα- or -σ- and the ending (and the augment, if any), substitute -w, and you should be able to find your word in the lexicon. If not, the probability is that this word is a dental lexal verb and the dental has dropped out before the -σ-, in accordance with

58 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

#4.55. So, restore the dental. Try each dental in turn until you find a word that is listed in your lexicon. Start with ζ first (there are 211 Greek New Testament verbs with present lexals ending in ζ; eight in δ; six in θ; and one in τ).

4.75 It is important for deciphering a verb to be able to recognize and identify all the morphs of which it is composed. We can now add two extra morph slots — for the reduplication (Slot 3) and the future morph (Slot 6) — to the five we have already met in Lesson Three (#3.93). We should also NOTE (a) that the neutral morph (-ο/ε-), the punctiliar morph (-σα-) and the perfective active morph (-κα-) are alternatives in the aspect slot (Slot 7) — one or other of them will occur; (b) that when the neutral morph is lengthened this indicates subjunctive mode; and (c) that the aorist subjunctive thus requires both the punctiliar morph (which will not be -σα- but -σ- because it comes in front of a vowel) and the lengthened neutral morph. (This is the only circumstance in which two affix aspect morphs will occur together in Slot 7.) Moreover, the infinitive ending is an alternative to the pronoun ending: a verb will have one or the other.

4.76 TRANSLATING THE FUTURE: The unifying idea of the future tense is that of expectation. Four types of future (identical in form) can be recognized from their context:

    (a) Predictive Future (the most common kind): Translate as -will". The speaker is predicting what is going to happen. This may be a statement of the speaker's own intention ("Teacher, I will follow you" [Mt 8:19]), or of the speaker's expectation ("One of you will say to me ..." [Rom 9:19]).

    (b) Prophetic Future: This is a promise made by the Lord or his prophet. The NRSV at times translates this as "shall": "Look, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son" (Matthew 1:23; similarly Matthew 2:6, etc.).

    (c) Imperatival Future: a future form which has the force of an imperative (see #4.46). Translate "shall" ("You shall call his name Jesus" [Mt 1:21]; "You shall not steal ... You shall love your neighbour as yourself [Mt 19:18-19, NRSV]; "he shall be your servant" [Mk 10:43, L9/B9]).

    (d)

Subjunctival Future: occasionally a future will be used where you would expect a subjunctive (see #4.43-45; #4.49), and with subjunctive meaning. Translate "may", "might", "would", "should", or similarly. This use of the future can occur in constructions that normally require a subjunctive: after ἵνα (Gal 2:4; 1 Pet 3:1; Rev 3:9; 6:4; 6:11; 14:13; 22:14); and after ἐάν, μή, or μήποτε (Mt 7:6; Acts 8:31; Col 2:8; Heb 3:12); and with οὐ μή as an emphatic negating of the future (Mt 15:6; 16:22; 26:35; Mark 13:31; 14:31; Luke 21:33; John 4:14; 6:35; 10:5; 20:25; Gal 4:30; Heb 10:17; Rev 3:5; 9:6; 18:14). Example: Βλέπετε, ἀδελφοί, μήποτε ἔσται ἔν τινι ὑμῶν, "Watch out, brothers, lest there should be in any one of you ..." (Heb 3:12).

4.77 Here is the morphological analysis of a selection of forms from λύω (#4.21) and one from the compound ἀπολύω. Examine each form, identify what it is, and work out its meaning:

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
VERB FORM	PREP.	PAST	REDUPLICATION	LEXAL		FUTURE	ASPECT		ENDING
λύσω				λυ		σ	ο		L
λύσω				λυ			σω		L
λύσουσι(ν)				λυ		σ	ο		υσιν
ἔλυε(ν)		ἐ		λυ			∅		ε(ν)
ἐλύομεν		ἐ		λυ			ο		μεν
ἔλυσα		ἐ		λυ			σα		∅
ἐλύσαμεν		ἐ		λυ			σα		μεν
λελύκαμεν			λε	λυ			κα		μεν
λύῃ				λυ			η		ι
λύωμεν				λυ			ω		μεν
λύσωμεν				λυ			ω		μεν
ἀπολῦσαι	ἀπο			λυ			σα		αι
λελυκέναι				λυ			κε		ναι

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 59

4.78

Slots 1, 4, 7 and 9 can be likened to multiposition switches (see #A3.37) — you can have any preposition in Slot 1, any lexal in Slot 4, one of the aspect morphs (neutral, punctiliar or perfective) in Slot 7, and a pronoun or infinitive ending in Slot 9. Slots 2, 3 and 6 are like simple on/off switches — when the morph is there, that switch is "on", and it switches the word to "past time", "perfect", or "future time" respectively.

4.8 USING THE GUIDELINES TO UNDERSTAND SOME VERBS IN THE SELECTIONS

4.81 ἀνῆλθεν: The first part of the word is the preposition ἀνά, which has elided its final vowel when prefixed to a lexal commencing with a vowel (see #4.52). The main verb is then seen to be -ῆλθεν, which will be recognized as a form from the paradigm of ἦλθον (#3.81). (Selection B 14.)

4.82 δεδουλεύκαμεν: The reduplication indicates that this is present perfect, confirmed by the -κα- between lexal and ending. The ending shows that the verb form is first person plural. Remove reduplication, perfective aspect morph, and ending, add -ω, and you have the lexical form, δουλεύω. (Selection B 10.)

4.83 μὴ νομίσητε: The μή alerts you that the following word is likely to be a verb, and if so it will not be indicative mode (#4.49). The -σ- of νομίσητε indicates either the future or the aorist, the -η- after the -σ- shows it to be subjunctive. As there is no such tense as a future subjunctive, you check your paradigm pattern and confirm that it is first aorist subjunctive, the -τε ending identifying it as the second person plural. But of what verb? The lexal before the sigma is νομι-, so the verb could be νομίω. You check your wordlist and find that there is no such word. So it is either a dental lexal verb, with the dental having dropped out before sigma, or it is some irregular form. You check out the dental possibilities and discover that the verb is: νομίζω. You can now see that it is a negative second person plural aorist subjunctive, which (as per #4.46) is "The prohibition of an act not yet begun." Thus μὴ νομίσητε means, "Do not have the thought ...", "Do not imagine for a single moment ...". (Selection B 18.)

4.84 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: Always take careful note of the aspect of a verb, and take it into account in your translation, and for your understanding of a passage: sometimes the aspect chosen by the author can make a significant difference to the meaning of what he is saying. Thus in 1 John 3:9 we read, "Whoever has been born of God does not sin, for his seed remains in him; and he cannot sin, because he has been born of God." [NKJV.] This passage has caused considerable concern to many Christians who know they have been born again, and yet are aware that they have fallen into sin. If you know Greek, you will recognize that John here is using durative aspect, referring to an ongoing situation: "No one who is born of God will continue To sin, because God's seed remains in him; he cannot go on sinning, because he has been born of God." [NIV.] The passage is not speaking of an isolated act of sin, but of a continuing to live in sin: it is this which is incompatible with Christian profession. Again: in Ephesians 5:18 Paul instructs, "Be filled with the Spirit". He could have chosen to use punctiliar aspect (the aorist imperative), hich would have emphasized the fact of the filling, and could have been taken to refer to a once-for-all experience of Spirit-filling. Instead, Paul chose to use durative aspect (the present imperative), thus speaking of a repeated and ongoing filling: "Be continuously being filled with the Spirit."

4.9 NOTES FOR THE SELECTIONS

4.91 Verbs with lexals ending in -ε- (a) absorb this -ε- into a following long vowel or diphthong ending, and (b) contract this -ε- with a following -ε- into the diphthong -ει-. (Other types of contraction will be explained in #6.8.)

60 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

4.92 The infinitive after ἐν τῷ expresses the time at or during which the action occurred; it can be translated "when ..." or "while ..." (verb action). (Selection B20.)

4.93 The article plus δέ can be used on its own as the subject of a sentence, referring to someone previously mentioned. Thus ὁ δὲ ..., "and he ...". (See #1.83.) (Selection B20.)

4.94 NOTE another pair of words differentiated by their accent. We have met ἀλλά, "but", in L2/B20; ἄλλος (introduced in L4/B15) has the nominative/accusative neuter plural form ἄλλα, differing from ἀλλά only in its accent.

4.95 There will be occasions when the aorist is best rendered into English by the present perfect, where Greek focusses on the act and English on the consequence. For example: Ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος τοῦτο ἐποίησεν — "some enemy has done this". (ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος = a hostile man, an enemy.) (Selection B20.)

ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON FOUR

1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are:     7. The first aorist indicative active of λύω (ἔλυσα, #4.21);     8. The forms of the present active imperative, infinitive and participle of λύω (#4.21).     9. The forms of the first aorist active imperative, infinitive and participle of λύω (#4.21).

2. LEARNING THE OTHER FLEXIONS OF THE ACTIVE VERB: Compare the flexion of λύσω (future) with the present tense (#2.81); the flexion of the perfect, λέλυκα, with the first aorist, ἔλυσα; the imperfect, ἔλυον, with the second aorist, ἔβαλον (#3.81), and the flexions of the present and aorist subjunctive with each other and with the present indicative, λύω (#2.81). Learn these various flexions of λύω by noting the similarities and differences seen in your comparisons, and the significance of the differences.

3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in the Appendix, #A4.

4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson.

5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue to read each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek.

NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it.

6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 4 (for "Lesson 4") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; you will need some words for several Sentences. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.)

7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12.

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 61

PREPOSITIONS

ἀνά (+acc) up *διά (+gen) through κατέναντι (+gen) opposite    *πρός (+acc) to, towards, at, with, because of

ἐγγύς (+gen) near, close by (also used as an adverb, not governing a noun)

A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK

(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.)

	SENTENCES	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
A1.	"Release Barabbas for us." (Luke 23:18)	release: *ἀπολύω; Barabbas: Βαραββᾶς
A2.	And they said to him, "Believe upon the Lord Jesus, and you (sg emphatic) will be saved." (Acts 16:31)	you (sg) will be saved: σωθήσῃ
A3.	Pilate then says to him, "I have authority to release you." (John 19:10)	authority: * ἐξουσία, -ας, ἡ
A4.	Jesus says to them, "Do you believe that I am able to do this thing?" (Matthew 9:28)	I am able: *δύναμαι; do, make, carry out, practise: *ποιέω
A5.	They say to him, "Yes, Lord." (Matt 9:28)	yes: ναί
A6.	"Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?" (Acts 26:14)	Saul: Σαούλ; persecute: διώκω
A7.	"Who are you, Lord?" (Acts 26:15)
A8.	"I (emphatic) am Jesus whom you (emphatic) are persecuting." (Acts 26:15)
A9.	For not even his brothers believed in him. (John 7:5)	not even (neither, nor): *οὐδέ; in: *εἰς
A10.	"Lord, Lord, open up for us." (Matt 25:11)	open, open up: *ἀνοίγω
A11.	"Sir, we wish to see Jesus." (John 12:21)	wish, want: *θέλω; see: *εἶδον (aorist²)
A12.	The man believed the word which Jesus said to him. (John 4:50)	believe: *πιστεύω (takes dative); which: relative pronoun (see #4.13-4.17)

B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

	SELECTIONS	ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY
B1.	Κύριε, σῶσόν με. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 14:30)	*σῴζω: save, rescue, deliver, cure
B2.	Ἦν δὲ ἐγγὺς τὸ Πάσχα τῶν Ἰουδαίων· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:55)	πάσχα, τό (indecl.): the passover
B3.	εἰρήνην τὴν ἐμὴν δίδωμι ὑμῖν· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 14:27)	*δίδωμι: I give
B4.	καὶ ἦλθον εἰς Βηθσφαγὴ πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 21:1)	Βηθσφαγή, ἡ (indecl.): Bethphage; *ὄρος, -ους, τό: mountain; ἐλαία, -ας, ἡ: olive (tree)
B5.	Καὶ ἦν κηρύσσων ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς αὐτῶν εἰς ὅλην τὴν Γαλιλαίαν, καὶ τὰ δαιμόνια ἐκβάλλων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:39)	κηρύσσων: preaching; *συναγωγή, synagogue; ἐκβάλλων: driving out
B6.	καὶ σύ ποτε ἐπιστρέψας στήριξον τοὺς ἀδελφούς σου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 22:32)	ἐπιστρέφω: return, turn around; ποτε: once; στηρίζω: strengthen
B7.	Καὶ ἐγγὺς ἦν τὸ Πάσχα τῶν Ἰουδαίων, καὶ ἀνέβη εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα ὁ Ἰησοῦς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 2:13)	ἀνέβη: (he) went up; Ἱεροσόλυμα, -ων, τά: Jerusalem

62 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

	SELECTIONS	ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY
B8.	τὰ ῥήματα ἃ ἐγὼ λαλῶ ὑμῖν, πνεῦμά ἐστιν καὶ ζωή ἐστιν. Ἀλλ’ εἰσὶν ἐξ ὑμῶν τινες οἳ οὐ πιστεύουσιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:63-64)	Re ῥήματα: see #3.4; *λαλέω: speak; Re ἐστιν: see #2.17(a); ἀλλ’=ἀλλά [see #1.81(e)]; τινες some (people)
B9.	Ἐγὼ δὲ ὅτι τὴν ἀλήθειαν λέγω, οὐ πιστεύετέ μοι. Τίς ἐξ ὑμῶν ἐλέγχει με περὶ ἁμαρτίας; Εἰ δὲ ἀλήθειαν λέγω, διὰ τί ὑμεῖς οὐ πιστεύετέ μοι; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:45-46)	*εἰ: if; διὰ τί why?
B10.	Σπέρμα Ἀβραάμ ἐσμεν, καὶ οὐδενὶ δεδουλεύκαμεν πώποτε· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:33)	οὐδενί: to no one; δουλεύω: be a slave, enslaved; πώποτε: at any time
B11.	Ἦν δὲ ἡ Βηθανία ἐγγὺς τῶν Ἱεροσολύμων· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:18)	Βηθανία, ἡ: Bethany
B12.	Εἶπεν αὐτῇ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ ἀνάστασις καὶ ἡ ζωή· ... Πιστεύεις τοῦτο; Λέγει αὐτῷ, Ναί, Κύριε· ἐγὼ πεπίστευκα, ὅτι σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστός, ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:25-27)
B13.	Ἄγουσιν αὐτὸν πρὸς τοὺς Φαρισαίους, τόν ποτε τυφλόν. Ἦν δὲ σάββατον ὅτε τὸν πηλὸν ἐποίησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς, καὶ ἀνέῳξεν αὐτοῦ τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 9:13-14)	Φαρισαῖος, -ου, ὁ: a Pharisee; *τυφλός -ή -όν: blind (person); πηλός, -οῦ, ὁ: clay, mud; *ὀφθαλμός, -οῦ, ὁ: eye
B14.	Ἀνῆλθεν δὲ εἰς τὸ ὄρος ὁ Ἰησοῦς, καὶ ἐκεῖ ἐκάθητο μετὰ τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ. Ἦν δὲ ἐγγὺς τὸ Πάσχα, ἡ ἑορτὴ τῶν Ἰουδαίων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:3-4)	ἀνῆλθεν: I went up; ἐκάθητο: (he) sat/was sitting (down); ἑορτή, -ῆς, ἡ, feast
B15.	Ἔλεγον δὲ πολλοὶ ἐξ αὐτῶν, Δαιμόνιον ἔχει καὶ μαίνεται· τί αὐτοῦ ἀκούετε; Ἄλλοι ἔλεγον , Ταῦτα τὰ ῥήματα οὐκ ἔστιν δαιμονιζομένου · μὴ δαιμόνιον δύναται τυφλῶν ὀφθαλμοὺς ἀνοίγειν; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:20-21)	πολλοί: many; μαίνεται: he is raving mad; *ἄλλος -η -ο: (an)other; δαιμονιζόμενος: a demon-possessed man; δύναται: he is able
B16.	ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς καὶ ἔστη εἰς τὸ μέσον, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Εἰρήνη ὑμῖν. ... Εἶπεν οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς πάλιν, Εἰρήνη ὑμῖν· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 20:19, 21)	ἔστη: (he) stood
B17.	Πιστὸς δέ ἐστιν ὁ κύριος, ὃς στηρίξει ὑμᾶς καὶ φυλάξει ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΕΙΣ Β, 3:3)	*πιστός -ή -όν: faithful, reliable, trustworthy; στηρίζω: future ⟶ στηρίξω); φυλάσσω: guard, keep
B18.	Μὴ νομίσητε ὅτι ἦλθον καταλῦσαι τὸν νόμον ἢ τοὺς προφήτας· οὐκ ἦλθον καταλῦσαι ἀλλὰ πληρῶσαι. Ἀμὴν γὰρ λέγω ὑμῖν, ἕως ἂν παρέλθῃ ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ, ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία οὐ μὴ παρέλθῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ νόμου, ἕως ἂν πάντα γένηται. Ὃς ἐὰν οὖν λύσῃ μίαν τῶν ἐντολῶν τούτων τῶν ἐλαχίστων, καὶ διδάξῃ οὕτως τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ἐλάχιστος κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν· ὃς δ’ ἂν ποιήσῃ καὶ διδάξῃ, οὗτος μέγας κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν. Λέγω γὰρ ὑμῖν ὅτι ἐὰν μὴ περισσεύσῃ ἡ δικαιοσύνη ὑμῶν πλεῖον τῶν γραμματέων καὶ Φαρισαίων, οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθητε εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:17-20)	νομίζω: think, suppose; καταλύω: do away with, destroy; *πληρόω: accomplish, fulfil; *γάρ: for; *ἕως: until; *ἄν: ever (indicating indefiniteness); παρῆλθον: I passed away; ἰῶτα, τό (indecl): iota, jot, smallest letter; *εἷς, μία, ἕν, one (the number); κεραία, -ας, ἡ: stroke of a letter; πάντα all, everything; γένηται: happens, is accomplished; *ἐάν: ever, if (ever); *ἐντολή, -ῆς, ἡ: commandment; ἐλάχιστος -ίστη -ον: least; *διδάσκω (aorist ἐδίδαξα): teach; *οὕτως: thus, so; κληθήσεται: (he) shall be called; δ’ = δέ [see #1.81(e)]; *μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα: great; ἐάν μή: except, unless; περισσεύω: exceed, overflow; *δικαιοσύνη, -ης, ἡ: righteousness; *πλείων, πλεῖον (+gen): more (than); *γραμματεύς, -έως, ὁ: scribe; *εἰσῆλθον: I entered (aor²)

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 63

	SELECTIONS	ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY
B19.	καὶ ἠκολούθησαν αὐτῷ ὄχλοι πολλοί, καὶ ἐθεράπευσεν αὐτοὺς πάντας, καὶ ἐπετίμησεν αὐτοῖς, ἵνα μὴ φανερὸν αὐτὸν ποιήσωσιν· ὅπως πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν διὰ Ἠσαΐου τοῦ προφήτου, λέγοντος, Ἰδού, ὁ παῖς μου ὃν ᾑρέτισα· ὁ ἀγαπητός μου εἰς ὃν εὐδόκησεν ἡ ψυχή μου ·(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 12:15-18)	*ἀκολουθέω: follow; θεραπεύω: heal, cure; ἐπιτιμάω: command, order; *ἵνα: in order that, that; φανερός -ά -όν: known; πληρωθῇ: (it) might be fulfilled; τὸ ῥηθέν: what was said/spoken; παῖς, παιδός, ὁ/ἡ: servant, child; αἱρετίζω: choose, appoint; εὐδοκέω: take delight in

SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES

	SELECTIONS	ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY
B20.	Ὡμοιώθη ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν ἀνθρώπῳ σπείροντι καλὸν σπέρμα ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ αὐτοῦ· ἐν δὲ τῷ καθεύδειν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ἦλθεν αὐτοῦ ὁ ἐχθρὸς καὶ ἔσπειρεν ζιζάνια ἀνὰ μέσον τοῦ σίτου, καὶ ἀπῆλθεν. Ὅτε δὲ ἐβλάστησεν ὁ χόρτος καὶ καρπὸν ἐποίησεν, τότε ἐφάνη καὶ τὰ ζιζάνια. Προσελθόντες δὲ οἱ δοῦλοι τοῦ οἰκοδεσπότου εἶπον αὐτῷ, Κύριε, οὐχὶ καλὸν σπέρμα ἔσπειρας ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ; Πόθεν οὖν ἔχει ζιζάνια; Ὁ δὲ ἔφη αὐτοῖς, Ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος τοῦτο ἐποίησεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:24-28)	ὡμοιώθη: may be compared; σπείροντι: sowing; καθεύδω: sleep; ἐχθρός -ά -όν: enemy, hated; ἐπισπείρω: sow over, resow; ἀνὰ μέσον: up the middle (= amongst); σῖτος, -ου, ὁ: wheat; ἀπῆλθον: I went away, departed; *ὅτε: when; βλαστάω: sprout; χόρτος, -ου, ὁ: plant, grass; *καρπός[1], -οῦ, ὁ: fruit; *τότε: then; ἐφάνη: (it) appeared; προσῆλθον: I approached; *δοῦλος, -ου, ὁ: slave; οἰκοδεσπότης, -ου, ὁ: master; *σπείρω: sow
B21.	υἱὸς Τιμαίου Βαρτίμαιος ὁ τυφλὸς ἐκάθητο παρὰ τὴν ὁδὸν προσαιτῶν. Καὶ ἀκούσας ὅτι Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖός ἐστιν, ἤρξατο κράζειν καὶ λέγειν, Ὁ υἱὸς Δαυίδ, Ἰησοῦ, ἐλέησόν με. Καὶ ἐπετίμων αὐτῷ πολλοί, ἵνα σιωπήσῃ· ὁ δὲ πολλῷ μᾶλλον ἔκραζεν, Υἱὲ Δαυίδ, ἐλέησόν με. Καὶ στὰς ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτὸν φωνηθῆναι· καὶ φωνοῦσιν τὸν τυφλόν, λέγοντες αὐτῷ, Θάρσει· ἔγειραι, φωνεῖ σε. Ὁ δὲ ἀποβαλὼν τὸ ἱμάτιον αὐτοῦ ἀναστὰς ἦλθεν πρὸς τὸν Ἰησοῦν. Καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Τί θέλεις ποιήσω σοί; Ὁ δὲ τυφλὸς εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ῥαββουνί, ἵνα ἀναβλέψω. Ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτῷ , Ὕπαγε · ἡ πίστις σου σέσωκέν σε. Καὶ εὐθέως ἀνέβλεψεν, καὶ ἠκολούθει τῷ Ἰησοῦ ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ . Καὶ ὅτε ἐγγίζουσιν εἰς Ἱερουσαλήμ, εἰς Βηθσφαγὴ καὶ Βηθανίαν, πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν, ἀποστέλλει δύο τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Ὑπάγετε εἰς τὴν κώμην τὴν κατέναντι ὑμῶν· καὶ εὐθέως εἰσπορευόμενοι εἰς αὐτὴν εὑρήσετε πῶλον δεδεμένον, ἐφ’ ὃν οὐδεὶς ἀνθρώπων κεκάθικεν· λύσαντες αὐτὸν ἀγάγετε. Καὶ ἐάν τις ὑμῖν εἴπῃ, Τί ποιεῖτε τοῦτο; Εἴπατε, ὅτι Ὁ κύριος αὐτοῦ χρείαν ἔχει· καὶ εὐθέως αὐτὸν ἀποστέλλει ὧδε. Ἀπῆλθον δὲ καὶ εὗρον πῶλον δεδεμένον πρὸς τὴν θύραν ἔξω ἐπὶ τοῦ ἀμφόδου, καὶ λύουσιν αὐτόν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 10:46-11:4)	ἐλεάω: be merciful (to); φωνέω: call, call out; ἀποκριθείς: answering; ῥαββουνί: Rabbi; ἀναβλέπω: see again; *ὑπάγω: I go (one's way); ἐγγίζω: come near; κώμη, -ης, ἡ: village; *εὑρίσκω: find; πῶλος, -ου, ὁ: colt; *φέρω: bring; *ἐάν: if (ever); * τις (without accent): anyone, someone, a certain; χρεία, -ας, ἡ: need; *ὧδε: here

LESSON FIVE

THE THIRD DECLENSION

5.1 HOW TO FIND YOUR WAY THROUGH THE THIRD DECLENSION (D3)

5.11 Many students find the Third Declension (D3) to be the hardest part of Greek to be mastered. There are so many Third Declension words and they decline so differently from each other that this Declension seems to look like a grabbag of whatever is left over from the First and Second Declensions rather than an orderly pattern. The forms of many words are unexpected and their behaviour is sometimes quite unpredictable. Twenty different standard paradigms exist, and many of them are followed by only two or three words in the New Testament — or maybe by just one word. In addition, there are a large number of common irregular words. To master the Third Declension seems like a great deal of work.

5.12 It is: but only if the aim is to be able to write in New Testament Greek. Even the Greeks themselves got lost in the Third Declension at times, and in the general Greek literature (and on occasions in the New Testament too) various alternatives are found for some of the normal case forms of some D3 words.

5.13 However, our aim is a more modest one: to be able to recognize and identify words of the Third Declension when we come across them in reading the Greek New Testament. It is much easier to identify forms when we encounter them than to be able to predict what a particular case will be.

5.14 Third Declension paradigms divide up into those for words with vowel stems, and those for words with consonant stems. Each of these subdivides again into masculine/feminine paradigms, and neuter paradigms. There are four basic paradigms for Third Declension words:

	MASC./FEM.	NEUTER
Vowel Stem:	ἰχθύς	γένος
Consonant Stem:	σάρξ	σῶμα

5.15 The other paradigms (there are twenty altogether) differ from these four mainly as a result of the changes which occur because of the phoneme(s) with which their stems end — these changes can be explained on the basis of six descriptive rules. Some sample paradigms are given here to illustrate these rules; the full twenty are set out in the Appendix, #D3.

5.2 THIRD DECLENSION VOWEL STEMS

5.20 Third Declension nouns with vowel stems vary in behaviour depending upon the vowel itself, and how it reacts with the endings that are added. There are five standard paradigm patterns — four for masculine/feminine nouns, and the other for neuter nouns. These are set out here, together with a listing of the endings, and of the Second Declension paradigm for comparison:

64

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 65

SECOND	THIRD DECLENSION VOWEL STEMS
DECLENSION   SN κύριος V κύριε A κύριον G κυρίου D κυρίῳ PN κύριοι A κυρίους G κυρίων D κυρίοις	Endings D3.1 fish D3.2 city D3.3 ox D3.4 king D3.5 race   -ς ἰχθύς πόλις βοῦς βασιλεύς γένος - ἰχθύ πόλι βοῦ βασιλεῦ γένος -ν ἰχθύν πόλιν βοῦν βασιλέα γένος -ος ἰχθύος πόλεως βοός βασιλέως γένους -ι ἰχθύι πόλει βοΐ βασιλεῖ γένει -ες ἰχθύες πόλεις βόες βασιλεῖς γένη -ας ἰχθύας πόλεις βόας βασιλεῖς γένη -ων ἰχθύων πόλεων βοῶν βασιλέων γένων -σι(ν) ἰχθύσι(ν) πόλεσι(ν) βουσί(ν) βασιλεῦσι(ν) γένεσι(ν)

POINTS TO BE NOTED concerning these paradigms:

5.21 The Second and Third Declensions have a separate form for the vocative singular. For the Third Declension, this is usually the word stem (frequently minus the final consonant of a consonant stem when this is other than "ρ" or "ν"). (If a dash, — , is put for the vocative in any of these paradigms it does not mean that that type of word can have no vocative, but that the nominative form is used as the vocative.)

5.22 The dative plural ending is -σι(ν), with a movable nu.

5.23 NOTE: The stem of a Third Declension noun is usually found by removing -og from the genitive singular. The endings are then added to this stem. The ἰχθύς paradigm retains the vowel of its stem unchanged throughout, and simply adds the endings. LEARN this paradigm. In the other vowel stem paradigms the basic endings have become modified through amalgamation with the vowel of the stem ("contraction") – an explanation of what has happened will be given later (#D3); it is sufficient to note these other paradigms at this stage.

5.24 The βασιλεύς paradigm takes the ending "-α" for the accusative singular, which (as we shall see in #5.30) is the ending for Third Declension consonant stem words. In the accusative plural, nouns of this group can also be found with the ending "-ας" (like ἰχθύας) as an alternative to the normal "-εις" (like πόλεις).

5.25 The γένος paradigm follows the invariable pattern of all neuters in having the same form for nominative and accusative. At first sight it may appear to depart from the pattern that neuters always end in "-α" in nominative and accusative plural. In fact the "-α" is there, but disguised, having contracted with the "-ε" of the stem to produce "-η".

5.26 Sometimes nouns of the yevog paradigm will have genitive plural forms in "-έων", but usually they are contracted to "-ῶν", e.g. γενῶν.

5.27 Compare and contrast the Second and Third Declension forms. One potential source of confusion for students is to misread a Third Declension neuter as a Second Declension masculine and thus to take a noun in "-ους" as being accusative plural (like the form κυρίους) rather than genitive singular. Again, it is necessary to distinguish carefully the neuter plural form in "-η" from the First Declension nominative singular of words of the φωνή paradigm.

66 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

5.3 THIRD DECLENSION MASCULINE AND FEMININE CONSONANT STEMS

5.30 Third Declension nouns with consonant stems have the same pattern of endings as those v, vowel stems, except for the one difference that the masculine/feminine accusative singular ending is "-α", not "-ν". The final consonant of the stem interacts with the endings and this gives the different subgroups of masculine and feminine nouns. There is one main paradigm for neuter nouns with consonant stems. In all these paradigms the stem of the word shows up clearly in the genitive singular, which is always given in a lexicon together with the nominative singular. The masculine/feminine paradigms are:

	Endings	D3.6 flesh	D3.8 child	D3.11 saviour	D3.12 star	D3.16
		ἡ σάρξ	ὁ/ἡ παῖς	ὁ σωτήρ	ὁ ἀστήρ
SN		σάρξ	παῖς	σωτήρ	ἀστήρ	ἡγεμών
A		σάρκα	παῖδα	σωτῆρα	ἀστέρα	ἡγεμόνες
G		σαρκός	παιδός	σωτῆρος	ἀστέρος	ἡγεμόνος
D		σαρκί	παιδί	σωτῆρι	ἀστέρι	ἡγεμόνι
PN		σάρκες	παῖδες	σωτῆρες	ἀστέρες	ἡγεμόνες
A		σάρκας	παῖδας	σωτῆρας	ἀστέρας	ἡγεμόνας
G		σαρκῶν	παίδων	σωτήρων	ἀστέρων	ἡγεμόνων
D		σαρξί(ν)	παισί(ν)	σωτῆρσι(ν)	[ἀστράσι(ν)]	ἡγεμόσι(ν)

5.31

No separate form for the vocative is given, as occurrences of this are rare. When it does occur, it usually conforms to the principle set out in #5.21 (e.g. in Attic Greek, παῖ, σῶτερ — note the short -ε-). The forms in square brackets are uncertain — see #D3.11 and #D3.12. 5.32 The paradigms of this Declension arise when stems and endings combine according to linguistic rules (see #4.5). Examples of how the different paradigms arise from the application of these rules are given here — for the other paradigms referred to, see Appendix D, #D3.

5.33 RULE ONE: SIGMA AMALGAMATES WITH PALATALS AND LABIALS: A sigma ending amalgamates with a palatal (#1.69) stem into ξ (example: Paradigm D3.6, σάρκ plus -ς --> σάρξ); and with a labial (#1.69) stem into ψ (example: Paradigm D3.7, λίβ- plus -ς --> λίψ)

5.34 RULE TWO: DENTALS DROP OUT BEFORE SIGMA: When the stem ends in a dental (#1.69), this dental drops out when a sigma ending is added. (Example: Paradigm D3.8, παῖδ- plus -ς --> παῖς).

5.35 RULE THREE: SIGMA ALONE SLIDES OFF A RHO: When a noun stem ends in the oral liquid -ρ, the -ς ending for the nominative singular slides off the rho and disappears. (Example: Paradigm D3.11, σωτήρ- plus -ς --> σωτήρ). On the other hand, the dative plural ending is not sigma alone but -σι(ν), and this ending is added to the stem in the usual way. (Example: Paradigm D3.11, σωτῆρσι(ν) ). (Some irregular forms of the dative plural are found in practice.)

5.36 RULE FOUR: COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING FOR STEM CONSONANT LOSS: When as a result of any of these rules one or more stem consonants have been lost from a nominative singular form, or two stem consonants have been lost from a dative plural form, then there is compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel: -ε- lengthens to -ει-, and -ο- lengthens to -ου-. (Example: Paradigm D3.8, ποδ- plus -ς —> first of all "πος" by Rule Two, and then πούς, by this Rule.) NOTE that this Rule does not apply when sigma slides off a liquid (in accordance with Rule Three or Rule Five), because sigma is an ending not a stem consonant, and therefore does not fill the requirement; and similarly this Rule does not apply when only one stem consonant has been lost from the dative plural.

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 67

5.37 RULE FIVE: NU AND SIGMA INCOMPATIBILITY RULE:

(a) The phonemes nu and sigma are incompatible in Greek, so that the sequence -νσ- or -νς does not occur in a Greek word. When the ending -ς is to be added to a stem which ends in -ν-, they cannot occur together and therefore one or the other of them is forced out of the word.

(b) Where a sigma alone is being added to a nu stem, usually the sigma slides off and disappears, in the same way as for rho stem words (#5.35). (Example: Paradigm D3.15, μην- plus -ς ⟶ μήν, because the sigma ending slides off and disappears.)

(c) In some words the sigma wins out and it is the nu which is lost from the word. (Example: Paradigm D3.20, ἱμαντ- plus -ς ⟶ first of all " ἱμαντς" and then by Rule Two "ἱμανς", and then ἱμάς.) If the preceding vowel is -ε- or -ο-, then when the stem letter nu is lost, this vowel will lengthen in accordance with Rule Four. (Examples: Paradigm D6.7, ἑν- plus becomes "ἑνς" and in this word it is the nu which is forced out, giving "ἑς"; and then under Rule Four this will become εἷς; Paradigm D3.19, ὀδοντ- plus -ς becomes "ὀδοντς" and then under Rule Two "ὀδονς" and when the stem letter nu is lost, "ὀδος", and finally under Rule Four ὀδούς.) NOTE: it is unusual for the added -ς to dislodge the -ν like this in a noun; but it is common in adjectives, participles and pronouns, allowing the masculine gender to be differentiated from the neuter (e.g., εἷς and ἕν; πᾶς and πᾶν).

(d) When the dative plural ending -σι(ν) is added to a nu stem, this morph wins out every time, and the nu is lost. (Example: Paradigm D3.16, ἡγεμον- plus -σι(ν) becomes ἡγεμόσι(ν) under this rule.) NOTE that in this word the preceding vowel -ο- does not lengthen by compensation under Rule Four because only one stem letter has been lost; but when two stem letters are lost from a dative plural form then there will be compensatory lengthening. (Example: Paradigm D3.18, ἀρχοντ- plus -σι(ν) first of all becomes "ἀρχοντσι(ν)" and then by Rule Two "ἀρχονσι(ν)", then by this Rule "ἀρχοσι(ν)", and finally by Rule Four, ἄρχουσι(ν). (NOTE the resemblance of this dative plural, with its movable nu, to the third person plural verb ending — beware of confusing these two forms.) This paradigm is the pattern followed by participles in -ων (set out in #D5.11).

5.38 RULE SIX: THE SHORT VOWEL LENGTHENING RULE: If in the final syllable of the nominative singular of a noun form -ε- or -ο- is followed by a single consonant, and the form is not neuter, then that vowel lengthens to -η- and -ω- respectively. (Examples: Paradigm D3.12, ἀστέρ- plus -ς —> first of all "ἀστερς" and then by Rule Three the sigma slides off, leaving "ἀστερ"; which then by this Rule becomes ἀστήρ; Paradigm D3.13, ἀλεκτορ- plus -ς --> first of all "ἀλεκτορς" and then by Rule Three the sigma slides off, leaving "ἀλέκτορ"; which then by this Rule becomes ἀλέκτωρ.) NOTE: this rule also applies when the vowel -ε- is followed by a double consonant (thus, ἀλώπηξ, genitive singular ἀλώπεκος); it does not apply when the vowel -ο- is followed by a double consonant (for example, φλόξ, σκόλοψ) or when the form is neuter (for example, Paradigm D6.7, ἕν)

5.39 CLASS EXERCISE: APPLYING THESE RULES: (a) The genitive singular of the word for "night" is νυκτός (feminine); applying these Rules, write out what the entire flexion of this word will be. (b) The masculine/neuter genitive singular of the aorist participle from τίθημι is θέντος.; write out what the entire masculine and neuter flexions for this word will be. (For checking your work, see #A5.2 and #D5.32.)

5.4 IRREGULAR THIRD DECLENSION MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS

5.41 Quite a large number of Third Declension masculine and feminine nouns are slightly irregular — they form their nominative singular (and at times, their dative plural) in a way that varies to a small extent (usually by only a single letter) from what would have been expected under the rules of linguistic modification given above. The "irregular" form is still so close to expectation that usually you would have no more than a slight hesitation in recognizing the word. The more common of these have been set out in the Vocabulary for this Lesson; you can see the irregularity by comparing the other forms with the genitive singular, which shows the stem.

68 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

5.42 Five other irregulars form what can be called "the family group": "father", -mother-. "daughter", "husband", and "wife" — all of them words that are so common that they are set out in full here (Paradigms D3.26 and D3.32) for ease of identification. (Only three paradigms are needed, as "mother", μήτηρ, and "daughter", θυγάτηρ, exactly follow "father", πατήρ.)

5.43 πατήρ, πατρός follows ἀστήρ, ἀστέρος (D3.12, #5.30), but is irregular in dropping the "-ε-" of its stem in the genitive and dative singular and in having an unexpected dative plural. "Husband, man", ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, replaces the "-δ-" of its stem with an "-ε-" for nominative and vocative singular, and conforms then to the pattern of Karrjp in these forms and in the dative plural. "Wife, woman", γυνή, γυναικός is irregular in its nominative singular, but in all other forms it conforms to the regular pattern of σάρξ, σαρκός (D3.6, #5.31).

5.44	D3.18 ruler	D3.32 father	D3.32 husband/man	D3.26 wife/woman	D3.9 body
	ὁ ἄρχων	ὁ πατήρ	ὁ ἀνήρ	ἡ γυνή	τὸ σῶμα
SN	ἄρχων	πατήρ	ἀνήρ	γυνή	σῶμα
V	—	πάτερ	ἄνερ	γύναι	—
A	ἄρχοντα	πατέρα	ἄνδρα	γυναῖκα	σῶμα
G	ἄρχοντος	πατρός	ἀνδρός	γυναικός	σώματος
D	ἄρχοντι	πατρί	ἀνδρί	γυναικί	σώματι
PN	ἄρχοντες	πατέρες	ἄνδρες	γυναῖκες	σώματα
A	ἄρχοντας	πατέρας	ἄνδρας	γυναῖκας	σώματα
G	ἀρχόντων	πατέρων	ἀνδρῶν	γυναικῶν	σωμάτων
D	ἄρχουσι(ν)	πατράσι(ν)	ἀνδράσι(ν)	γυναιξί(ν)	σώμασι(ν)

5.45 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: It is important to know the difference between ἀνήρ, which means "man" in the sense of "mature male", "husband", and ἄνθρωπος (introduced in #1.41), which is "man" as a person, a human being. In the New Testament ἄνθρωπος is used in reference to people in general, both men and women (in Matthew, for example, Matthew 4:4; 5:16; 5:19; 6:1; 6:5; 6:14-16; 7:12; 8:27; 12:12; 12:35; 12:43-45; 13:24-25; 16:26; 18:7; 23:4; and similarly in Paul's writings: for example, Romans 1:18; 1:23; 3:4; 3:28; 5:12; 5:18; 9:20; 14:18-20; 1 Corinthians 2:14; 3:3-4; 4:9; 11:28; 15:39; 2 Corinthians 5:11; 8:21; Galatians 1:10; 2:16; 6:7; Ephesians 4:8; 1 Thessalonians 2:6; 2:15; 1 Timothy 2:4-5; 4:10; 6:9; 2 Timothy 3:13; Titus 2:11; 3:2). In the NRSV ἄνθρωπος is usually translated as "mankind", "person", "human being", "people", "others" or the like. devrip is used in specific reference to a male human being, particularly in relation to that person's male roles; it is frequently used in contradistinction from γυνή, "wife, woman" (for example, by Paul in Romans 7:1-3; 1 Corinthians 7:1-16; 11:1-16; 14:35; Ephesians 5:22-33; Colossians 3:18-19; 1 Timothy 2:8-12; 3:2; 5:9; Titus 1:6). Now then: in 2 Timothy 2:2 Paul writes, "The things you have heard me say in the presence of many witnesses entrust to reliable men who will also be qualified to teach others." (NIV.) Which word does Paul use here for "men", who are also to be qualified to teach others? The word which means "males, husbands"? Or the word which means "human beings, persons of both sexes", who shall in turn teach others (of both sexes)? If you know Greek, you will recognize the word Paul chooses to use in 2 Timothy 2:2, and its significance for us in our understanding of Paul's overall teaching: Paul uses ἄνθρωπος, not ἀνήρ.

5.5 THIRD DECLENSION NEUTER CONSONANT STEMS

5.51 The Third Declension neuter nouns with consonant stems all conform exactly to the dental stem pattern of παῖς, παιδός (see Paradigm D3.8, #5.31), but they have the three characteristics of the neuter:

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 69

5.52 Firstly, the neuter nominative singular does not add the -ς that one finds in the masculine and feminine forms. Thus from the genitive singular σώματος one derives the stem σώματ-; no -ς is added for the nominative singular, but cannot stand as final letter of a word, and therefore is dropped (see the Word Endings Rule, #1.74). So the nominative singular is σῶμα.

5.53 Secondly, the nominative plural is formed by adding "-α" to the stem, σώματ-, giving σώματα.

5.54 Thirdly, the accusative (both singular and plural) is always identical with the nominative.

5.55 Of the 140 words that follow this paradigm, a dozen or so occur very frequently in the New Testament. In addition, there are three common words which do not have their stem in the "-ματ-" that is characteristic of this paradigm, and which have irregular nominative singular forms, but which in all other ways follow σῶμα. These words are: γόνυ, γόνατος, "knee" (#D3.29); οὖς, ὠτός, "ear" (#D3.30); and ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, water (#D3.13). Also neuter is πῦρ, -ρός, "fire", which follows σωτήρ (Paradigm D3.11, #5.30) but with the neuter characteristic that the accusative form is identical with the nominative (paradigm set out in full in Appendix, #D3.11).

5.6 LEARNING THE THIRD DECLENSION ???

5.61 It is not really necessary to learn all the Third Declension paradigms — they are not given here for that purpose. There are two which you do need to learn: ἰχθύς (Paradigm D3.1, #5.20), which will give you the endings, and then σάρξ (Paradigm D3.6, #5.30) for the consonant stem paradigms. Look carefully through the remainder of the paradigms set out in this Lesson to see how stems and endings are modified when the different types of each are added together. Aim to be sufficiently familiar with the Linguistic Modification Rules and the overall pattern so that you can expect to have a good likelihood of recognizing the number and case of a Third Declension word when you encounter one. Remember, when you need to, you can always refer back to these paradigms, here and in Appendix D, #D3.

5.62 If you have the time and the desire, other paradigms which it would be helpful for you to learn in addition would be βασιλεύς, γένος, and σῶμα.

5.7 LDECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES: FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION PATTERN

5.71 TWO PATTERNS OF DECLENSION: Adjectives follow two basic patterns of leclension, with two subgroups in each. There are adjectives which follow the First and Second Declension Pattern, and there are others which follow the First and Third Declension Pattern.

5.72 THE TWO SUB-GROUPS: Adjectives which follow the First and Second Declension pattern will normally have three flexions, for the three genders, and they are therefore referred to ls -three-termination adjectives of the First and Second Declensions". However, there are some which belong to this group but which do not have a separate feminine flexion; these are known as "two-termination adjectives of the Second Declension".

5.73 THREE-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (#D4.1, #D4.2): In this pattern, the feminine form of the adjective will follow the First Declension paradigms (D1.1 and D1.2, #3.11). The masculine and neuter forms of the adjective declined exactly the same as the nouns, masculine and neuter respectively, of the Second Declension (D2.1 and D2.2, #2.40). Thus, indicating the declensions of the masculine, feminine

70 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

and neuter flexions respectively, these can be referred to as 2-1-2 adjectives. These adjectives are cited in a lexicon in the masculine form followed by the feminine and neuter endings (#2.5 ). Paradigms for these are set out in Appendix D, #D4.1 and #D4.2.

5.74 TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE SECOND DECLENSION: Some adjectives have only the Second Declension terminations and do not use a distinctive feminine form - the masculine form does duty as the feminine also. In this circumstance the masculine flexion is known as personal gender, as it functions for both masculine and feminine. (These are thus 2-2 adjectives.) Words of this kind are for the most part adjectives that are compound. including those beginning with -α-, meaning "not" or "un-", such as ἄδικος -ον, -unjust". ἀδύνατος -ον, "incapable, impossible". Some adjectives vary between being used as two-termination and three-termination adjectives, and in these cases there are frequently variant readings in the manuscripts of the Greek, as ancient editors "corrected" the text in one direction or the other.

5.8 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES: FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSION PATTERN

5.81 THE TWO SUB-GROUPS: Adjectives which follow the First and Third Declension pattern will normally have three flexions, for the three genders, and they are therefore referred to as "three-termination adjectives of the First and Third Declensions" (these are 3-1-3 adjectives). However, there are some which belong to this group but which do not have a separate feminine flexion; these are known as "two-termination adjectives of the Third Declension" (these are 3-3 adjectives).

5.82 THREE TERMINATION ADJECTIVES: FEMININES ARE FIRST DECLENSION: In the pattern for three-termination adjectives of the First and Third Declensions, the stem of the feminine form of the adjective will usually end in ρ, ι, or ε, and therefore will take "-α-" and follow the First Declension paradigm of καρδία (D1.1, #3.11). For example, βαρεῖα, from βαρύς, "hard/heavy" (Paradigm D4.4). Alternatively, the stem of some adjectives ends in the phoneme sigma; such an adjective will decline like δόξα (D1.3, #3.11). Example: πᾶσα, from πᾶς, "all" (Paradigm D4.6). Those few adjectives which end in -η follow φωνή (D1.2, #3.11).

5.83 MASCULINES AND NEUTERS ARE THIRD DECLENSION: The masculine forms of βαρύς, #D4.4 (followed by 16 adjectives) are declined like πόλις (D3.2, #5.20), but with -υ-instead of -ι- in nominative (vocative) and accusative singular; the neuter forms have the regular neuter characteristics: identical with the masculine in genitive and dative, both singular and plural; nominative/accusative singular consists of the masculine word stem alone (βαρύ); nominative/ accusative plural forms take the ending -α- (βαρέα). The masculine of πᾶς (genitive παντός) follows the Linguistic Modification Rules exactly and is identical with Paradigm D3.20 (#5.37), while the neuter retains the -ν- of the stem in the nominative/accusative singular and adds the neuter -α- to the stem in the plural (the paradigm of πᾶς is given in full, #D4.6). All participles in "-ας" (such as λύσας, #4.21) follow πᾶς.

5.84 THE - ON PARTICIPLE PATTERN: The adjective "willing", ἑκών, ἑκόντος (#D4.5) follows Paradigm D3.18 (#5.44), ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος, with neuter nominative/accusative singular ἑκόν, and plural ἑκόντα. All participles in "-ων" (such as λύων, #4.21) decline like ἑκών (see #D5.1).

5.85 COMMON IRREGULARS, MIXED SECOND AND THIRD DECLENSION: Two very common adjectives are irregular and follow a mixed paradigm of Second and Third Declension forms. These are the flexions for the singular, with Third Declension forms underlined:

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 71

	πολύς, much, many, large	μέγας, great
SN A G D	m. f. n. πολύς πολλή πολύ πολύν πολλήν πολύ πολλοῦ πολλῆς πολλοῦ πολλῷ πολλῇ πολλῷ	m. f. n. μέγας μεγάλη μέγα μέγαν μεγάλην μέγα μεγάλου μεγάλης μεγάλου μεγάλῳ μεγάλῃ μεγάλῳ

The masculine and neuter plural is Second Declension throughout.

NOTE THAT the nominative and accusative forms, masculine and neuter (but not feminine) are Third Declension, while the genitive and dative forms, and all plural forms of these words, are regular Second Declension, with stems πολλ- and μεγαλ- respectively. That is, in these flexions from the genitive singular onwards, their stems add a lambda, and all forms with these lengthened stems are Second Declension. These flexions are set out in full in #D4.42, #D4.43.

5.86 THE WORD FOR "ONE": The word for "one" has these forms: SN Erg- pia iv A va ,uiav NOTE: In the nature of the case, there is no plural. G evog- ineic evdc The feminine uses a completely different stem: D evi plc( evi The forms of Erg combine with of)(5e and ,ur76e to give o1)(5eig-, o1')6Epia, o1)6ev and ,uri8Eic, prikuia, ,u176ev, "no-one, nothing". The forms eic and V are distinguished from the prepositions eig ("into", #A4.3) and ev ("in", #2.65) by the accent and the rough breathing on each.

5.87 TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION (#D4.7, D4.8): Some adjectives have only the Third Declension terminations and no distinctive feminine form – the masculine form does duty as the feminine also; that is to say, the masculine form is personal gender. (These are thus 3-3 adjectives.) There are two main paradigms for these, shown by di0pcov (which follows Paradigm D3.16 [#5.30], reiyE,uil)v, r)yeydvo;) and allelic (which follows Paradigm D3.5, [#5.20], yevog-, yevovg). All positive adjectives in "-WV" (except kialw and Coccov: for which, see #5.84) and all comparative adjectives in "-coy" follow dOpcov.

5.88 The pronoun 21g, 2/ (genitive Ttvoc) also has only two terminations and apart from the nominative singular follows fiye,ucav, rjyE,uovoc, Paradigm D3.16 (#5.30). NOTE that when accented on the iota (Tic, 2i, etc.), this is the interrogative pronoun "who?, what?", and when unaccented or accented on its second syllable it is the indefinite pronoun, "someone, a certain, something". (It is given in full in the Appendix, #D6.5, #D6.6.) (This is the eighth accent which needs to be noted: see #A4.23 and #5.86.)

5.89 Because of the extent to which these various adjectives, pronouns and participles have the same endings and follow the same general patterns as the nouns of the First, Second, and Third Declensions, their case, number and gender will usually be easily recognizable, and so it is not necessary to give paradigms for them all here. Any unusual or difficult forms will always be explained in the textual notes on the passage of the Greek New Testament that you are reading. All the paradigms, however, for adjectives, pronouns and participles are given in Appendix D.

5.9 NOTES RE THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT SELECTIONS

5.91 INSTRUMENTAL DATIVE: The dative case can be used to indicate the means with which something was done or the instrument that was used. This is called the instrumental dative. It is usu-ally best translated into English as "by means of ..." or "with ...". Thus in L5/B4, i36a-rt means "with water" – what is under consideration is what was used, not where it took place. Similarly in L5/B6 iDONlj yEycat3 means "with a loud voice", referring to "the instrument used" or "the means used".

72 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

5.92 Sometimes Lv (plus dative) is used with this same "instrumental" sense, the instrumental ev. Thus ev Irve15,uaTt ayicp (L5/B4) means "with the Holy Spirit" in this context, not "in the Holy Spirit". That is, the meaning of ev here is not positional, where the baptism takes place, but instrumental, what the baptism is with. Similarly kv nveopart doca0aprcp (L5/B6) means "with an unclean spirit).

5.93 Whether a particular use of the dative or the dative-plus-ev is instrumental or has some other meaning must be decided from the context in each particular case.

5.94 RECOGNIZING AORIST FORMS: Note the difference between Ocvcrav and .1')cray. Both forms contain the punctiliar morph -o-a- and are therefore first aorist tense. The k- in Avaav is the past time morph and this factor in itself indicates indicative mode (because the aorist only takes the past time morph in the indicative — #4.42). The form is thus to be recognized as 3rd person plural aorist indicative. However, .2.15(3-ay is an aorist participle: the neuter nominative singular of ,a'ocag and means "loosing" or "having loosed", or "after loosing", with reference to a word that is neuter. This should be kept in mind in tackling L5/B6.

ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON FIVE

1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are: 10. ixatjg (Paradigm D3.1, #5.20) 11. oyip (Paradigm D3.6, #5.30)

2. LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION: Aim to understand the Linguistic Modification Rules which produce the different paradigms of the Third Declension (#5.3), and to recognize the forms of the paradigms which result from these rules. That is, seek to learn these other paradigms by understanding rather than by rote.

3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in Appendix #A5.

4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson.

5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it.

6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 5 (for "Lesson 5") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some of the words will be needed for several Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.)

7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12.

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 73

PREPOSITIONS

*kgi, kg, kcif (+acc) for, to, concerning, across VE10EV (+gen) because of (+gen) over, upon *157-rep (+acc) beyond, more than (+dat) at, by, on, in (+gen) for, concerning, for the sake of

A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK

(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) NOTE: A word in square brackets, like [am], is omitted in the Greek.

	SENTENCES	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
A1.	This is truly the saviour of the world. (JOHN 4:42)	saviour: σωτήρ, -ῆρος, ὁ
A2.	"Say to the daughter of Zion, 'Behold, your king comes to you.— (MATTHEW 21:5)	daughter: Ovycirrip, Ovyarpoc, r); Zion: Itd)v (indecl.; 6 or to)
A3.	Grace and peace from God [the] father, and Christ Jesus our Saviour. (TITUS 1:4)	grace: *xdpic, xdptroc
A4.	and we (emphatic) have [the] mind of Christ. (1 CORINTHIANS 2:16)	and: *6e; mind: vac, voog, 6 (D3.3, #5.20)
A5.	Believe me that I (emphatic) [am] in the father and the father in me. (JOHN 14:11)	"believe" takes the dative
A6.	And the governor questioned him, saying, "Are you (emphatic) the king of the Jews?"	governor, leader: r,yeycov, -ovoc, 6 question, ask: *egepcoraco (MATTHEW 27:11)
A7.	They were saying, "He has an unclean spirit." (MARK 3:30)	unclean: docaeaproc, -ov
A8.	My spirit rejoiced in God my saviour. (LUKE 1:47)	rejoiced: r)yaalacev; in: *bri (plus the dative)
A9.	"Where is the one born king of the Jews? For we saw his star in the east, and we came to worship him." (MATTHEW 2:2)	where? Koi); the one born: 6 rexOeig; east: avararj, r); worship: *gpoo-Kvvew (takes the dative)

B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A superscript number (as in aor²) is used to indicate a Second or Third Conjugation verb (as the case may be).

	SELECTION	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
B1.	Λέγω γὰρ ὑμῖν, ὅτι πολλοὶ προφῆται καὶ βασιλεῖς ἠθέλησαν ἰδεῖν ἃ ὑμεῖς βλέπετε, καὶ οὐκ εἶδον· καὶ ἀκοῦσαι ἃ ἀκούετε, καὶ οὐκ ἤκουσαν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 10:24)	*πολύς πολλή πολύ: many, much, large
B2.	Καὶ εἰσῆλθεν πάλιν εἰς τὴν συναγωγήν, καὶ ἦν ἐκεῖ ἄνθρωπος ἐξηραμμένην ἔχων τὴν χεῖρα. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 3:1)	ἐξηραμμένην: shrivelled, withered
B3.	καὶ εἶπεν, Λάβετε, φάγετε· τοῦτό ἐστιν τὸ σῶμά μου ... Καὶ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Τοῦτό ἐστιν τὸ αἷμά μου, τὸ τῆς καινῆς διαθήκης. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 14:22, 24)	λάβετε: take (aorist² imperative); *σῶμα, -ατος, τό: body; *αἷμα, -ατος, τό: blood; διαθήκη, -ης, ἡ: covenant

74 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

	SELECTION	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
B4.	Ἐγὼ μὲν ἐβάπτισα ὑμᾶς ἐν ὕδατι· αὐτὸς δὲ βαπτίσει ὑμᾶς ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:8)	*βαπτίζω: baptize; *ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, τό: water; *ἅγιος, -α, -ον: holy
B5.	Εἴ τις ἔχει ὦτα ἀκούειν ἀκουέτω. Καὶ ἔλεγεν αὐτοῖς, Βλέπετε τί ἀκούετε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 4:23-24)	οὖς, ὠτός, τό: ear
B6.	ἦν γὰρ διδάσκων αὐτοὺς ὡς ἐξουσίαν ἔχων, καὶ οὐχ ὡς οἱ γραμματεῖς. Καὶ ἦν ἐν τῇ συναγωγῇ αὐτῶν ἄνθρωπος ἐν πνεύματι ἀκαθάρτῳ, καὶ ἀνέκραξεν ... Καὶ ἐπετίμησεν αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, λέγων, Φιμώθητι, καὶ ἔξελθε ἐξ αὐτοῦ. Καὶ σπαράξαν αὐτὸν τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἀκάθαρτον καὶ κράξαν φωνῇ μεγάλῃ, ἐξῆλθεν ἐξ αὐτοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:22-26)	ἀνακράζω: cry out (aorist, ἀνέκραξα); φιμώθητι: Be quiet!; σπαράξαν: throwing into convulsions (neuter aorist participle)
B7.	Λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ ὁδὸς καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια καὶ ἡ ζωή· οὐδεὶς ἔρχεται πρὸς τὸν πατέρα, εἰ μὴ δι’ ἐμοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 14:6)	*οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν: no-one; ἔρχεται: (he) comes; εἰ μή: except, unless; δι’ = διά (elision)
B8.	Εἶπεν δέ, Ἄνθρωπός τις εἶχεν δύο υἱούς· καὶ εἶπεν ὁ νεώτερος αὐτῶν τῷ πατρί, Πάτερ, δός μοι τὸ ἐπιβάλλον μέρος τῆς οὐσίας. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 15:11-12)	νεώτερος, -α, -ον: younger; δός: give (aor impv); ἐπιβάλλον: falling by inheritance; μέρος, -ους, τό: part; οὐσία, -ας, ἡ: property
B9.	Καὶ ... ἦσαν ἐκ τῶν Φαρισαίων. Καὶ ἠρώτησαν αὐτόν, καὶ εἶπον αὐτῷ, Τί οὖν βαπτίζεις, εἰ σὺ οὐκ εἶ ὁ χριστός, οὔτε Ἠλίας, οὔτε Ἠλίας οὐδὲ ὁ προφήτης; Ἀπεκρίθη αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰωάννης λέγων, Ἐγὼ βαπτίζω ἐν ὕδατι· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:24-26)	Ἠλίας, -ου, ὁ: Elijah; ἀπεκρίθη: (he) answered
B10.	ἀλλ’ ὑμεῖς οὐ πιστεύετε· οὐ γάρ ἐστε ἐκ τῶν προβάτων τῶν ἐμῶν, καθὼς εἶπον ὑμῖν. Τὰ πρόβατα τὰ ἐμὰ τῆς φωνῆς μου ἀκούει ἀκούουσιν, κἀγὼ γινώσκω αὐτά, καὶ ἀκολουθοῦσίν μοι· κἀγὼ ζωὴν αἰώνιον δίδωμι αὐτοῖς· καὶ οὐ μὴ ἀπόλωνται εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα, καὶ οὐχ ἁρπάσει τις αὐτὰ ἐκ τῆς χειρός μου. Ὁ πατήρ μου ὃς δέδωκέν μοι, μείζων πάντων ἐστίν· καὶ οὐδεὶς δύναται ἁρπάζειν ἐκ τῆς χειρὸς τοῦ πατρός μου. Ἐγὼ καὶ ὁ πατὴρ ἕν ἐσμεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:26-30, margin)	*ἐκ: belonging to, #2.65(b), #A4.38; Here there is an exception to 2.17(a): what is it? *γινώσκω: know; *αἰώνιος, -ία, -ον: eternal; ἀπόλωνται: (they) would perish (aor3 subj); εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα: to eternity, ever; ἁρπάζω: snatch; δέδωκεν: (he) has given; μείζων, μεῖζον: greater; *πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν, (παντός): every, all
B11.	ἐπὶ ἀρχιερέως Ἄννα καὶ Καϊάφα, ἐγένετο ῥῆμα θεοῦ ἐπὶ Ἰωάννην τὸν Ζαχαρίου υἱὸν ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ. Καὶ ἦλθεν εἰς πᾶσαν τὴν περίχωρον τοῦ Ἰορδάνου, κηρύσσων βάπτισμα μετανοίας εἰς ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν· (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 3:2-3)	Ζαχαρίας, -ου, ὁ: Zachariah; περίχωρος, -ου, ἡ: surrounding region; Ἰορδάνης, -ου, ὁ: Jordan (River); μετάνοια, -ας, ἡ: repentance; ἄφεσις, -εως, ἡ: forgiveness; *ἁμαρτία, -ίας, ἡ: sin
B12.	Μακροθυμήσατε καὶ ὑμεῖς, στηρίξατε τὰς καρδίας ὑμῶν, ὅτι ἡ παρουσία τοῦ κυρίου ἤγγικεν. (ΙΑΚΩΒΟΥ 5:8)	μακροθυμέω: wait patiently; παρουσία, -ας, ἡ: coming, arrival; ἤγγικα: perfect from ἐγγίζω, I draw near

B

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LESSON SIX

THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE

6.1 THE PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES OF THE VERB

6.11 So far we have covered only the active voice of the verb — where the subject of the verb is the doer of the action of the verb, that is, where the action of the verb moves outwards from the subject. It could be described diagrammatically as:

	VERB
SUBJECT	→

There are two other voices in Greek: the passive, and the middle.

6.12 The passive voice has the same meaning and operates in the same way as in English: the subject of the sentence is the person or thing upon whom the action of the verb is carried out. (Examples: "Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted." "The word was spoken by the prophet in days of old.") It could be described diagrammatically as:

	VERB
SUBJECT	←

6.13 The middle voice is (as its name suggests) between the active and the passive in its function. No simple explanation is possible of what the middle voice is: in fact, its function and meaning can vary from verb to verb. The middle voice can be found used in four ways:

1. Commonly, the middle voice is used for intransitive verbs, that is, where the action of the verb does not carry over to an object but solely affects the subject. (Examples: "The water boiled." "He paused." "The child laughed.") Often the subject of a middle voice verb is acting for himself or in his own interests.

2. Closely related to the first use, the middle voice can have a reflexive sense — the action was done to or for the subject. (Examples: "He exercised for thirty minutes, then bathed and dressed.")

6.14 These two basic usages shade into each other. Something of the force of the middle can be seen in these Greek New Testament examples, which you should consider:

Acts 8:32	A lamb is dumb before the one who is shearing it (κείρω, in the active), but
Acts 18:18	Paul had his head shorn (also κείρω, but this time in the middle).
John 13:14	Jesus washed the disciples' feet (active of νίπτω), but
Matthew 27:24	Pilate washed his hands (middle voice of νίπτω).
Matthew 27:31	They put on him his own clothes (active of ἐνδύω), but
Mark 6:9	Do not put on two tunics (middle of ἐνδύω).
Acts 21:24	You yourself keep the law (active of φυλάσσω), but
Acts 21:25	They are to keep themselves from idol food (middle of φυλάσσω).

However, the middle voice was falling out of use in koinē Greek, and it is not always found where it might be expected. Thus Matthew and Luke use the active voice of φυλάσσω in a passage where it is appropriate for the middle to be used, whereas in this passage Mark does use the middle:

Matthew 19:20	All these I have kept (ἐφύλαξα — active of φυλάσσω)
Mark 10:20	All these I have kept (ἐφυλαξάμην — middle of φυλάσσω)
Luke 18:21	All these I have kept (ἐφύλαξα — active of φυλάσσω)

76

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 77

6.15 The reflexive use of the middle is seen in:

Matthew 27:5

Judas went away and hanged himself (middle).

But it is more common to find a reflexive expressed by an active voice and the reflexive pronoun, as in:

John 17:19

I sanctify myself (active voice + reflexive pronoun).

6.16 Most commonly the middle voice will be rendered in English by the active voice, occasion-ally with the added pronoun (himself, for himself, etc.), and at times with a construction that indicates that the subject had the action carried out upon himself. The middle voice could be described diagrammatically as:

	VERB
SUBJECT	↩

6.17 The other two uses of the middle voice in Greek are:

3. Some verbs have developed a distinctive meaning in the middle voice which is only rather distantly related to their active meaning. NOTE these seven verbs particularly, to avoid confusion and misunderstanding. They are:

Active	Middle
αἰρέω I take away ἀποδίδωμι I repay ἅπτω I light ἄρχω I rule/govern καταλαμβάνω I obtain κόπτω I cut πείθω I persuade	αἰρέομαι I choose ἀποδίδομαι I sell ἅπτομαι I touch ἄρχομαι I begin καταλαμβάνομαι I realize/learn κόπτομαι I mourn/lament πείθομαι I obey

4. A number of verbs have only a middle form, without any corresponding active voice. These verbs have an active meaning and (in accordance with the connotations of the middle voice) they are intransitive or where they do require or can have an object it will be in a case other than the accusative. These verbs are known as deponent middle verbs. There are also a small number of deponent passive verbs, that is, verbs which use the passive voice forms rather than the middle, but with active meaning. A small number of deponents, of which ἀποκρίνομαι, "answer", is the most common, can use both middle and passive forms.

6.18 A comprehensive list of 59 verbs which are (always, or frequently) deponent in the Greek New Testament is given in #C7.5. Of these, there are twenty-four which occur more than 20 times each, and which therefore are particularly to be noted. These are:

ἀποκρίνομαι answer ἅπτομαι touch ἀρνέομαι deny ἄρχομαι begin ἀσπάζομαι greet βούλομαι want γίνομαι become δέομαι beseech

δέχομαι receive δύναμαι be able ἐργάζομαι work ἔρχομαι come εὐαγγελίζομαι preach ἡγέομαι think/lead θεάομαι look at ἰάομαι heal

καθήμαι sit down καυχάομαι boast κεῖμαι lie down λογίζομαι account/reckon πορεύομαι go/proceed προσεύχομαι pray φοβέομαι fear χαρίζομαι grant/forgive

6.19 Verbs that are deponent in the present are (almost without exception) deponent in the other tenses also (the only exceptions to note are that γίνομαι is γέγονα in the perfect, and the suppletive ἔρχομαι has active aorist and perfect forms from ἐλθ- [ἦλθον, ἐλήλυθα]). In addition, there are fourteen verbs (set out in #C7.6) which are deponent in their future tense in the New Testament and have active forms in their other tenses. These are all quite common and important

78 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

verbs, and should be noted carefully. It is important to be able to recognize a deponent form, so that it can be correctly interpreted.

6.2 THE PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE

6.21 The middle voice has its own set of pronoun endings, which are added to the same stem as for the active. The six Greek tenses fall into two groups, which are known as the primary and secondary tenses. The primary and secondary tenses have slightly different pronoun endings. They are:

	Characteristic	Primary Tenses (Present,	Secondary Tenses (Imperfect,
	Letter	Future, Present Perfect)	Aorist, Pluperfect)
SINGULAR 1 2 3 PLURAL 1 2 3	μ σ τ μ σ τ	-μαι -σαι -ται -μεθα -σθε -νται	-μην -σο -το -μεθα -σθε -ντο

6.22 NOTE that the secondary tenses are the ones that take the augment (in the indicative mode, indicating past time), whereas the primary tenses do not. The secondary tenses are also known as the historic tenses. NOTE the characteristic letters found for 1st, 2nd and 3rd person (μ, σ, τ) which also surface in other places — the -μ- and -σ- in the personal pronouns ἐμέ, με, σύ, etc., and in ἐμός, ἐμαυτόν, σεαυτόν; and the -τ- in αὐτός, οὗτος, and the article.

6.23 The same procedures are used as in the active voice for adding the endings to the lexal: the present tense adds the neutral morph -ε- or -ο- to the lexal and then takes the primary endings; the future is the same as the present with the -σ- future morph inserted between the lexal and the endings; the imperfect has the augment, adds the neutral morph -ε- or -ο- to the lexal and then takes the secondary endings; the first aorist has the augment, adds the punctiliar morph -σα- (-σ- before vowels) to the lexal and then takes the secondary endings. The one difference is that the present perfect does not have the perfective morph -κα- (as in the active) but adds the ending straight on to the reduplicated lexal. The pluperfect is rare, and so is not set out here (it is given in #C1.1); like the present perfect middle, it adds its endings (the secondary endings) straight on to the lexal, and takes the augment — thus giving the form ἐλελύμην. However, in use the pluperfect frequently omits the augment. Some verbs form their pluperfect middle and possibly some forms of their perfect middle as well by the use of the perfect middle participle and the imperfect tense of εἰμι, or the present tense respectively. These are known as periphrastic tenses, and will be covered more fully at a later time (#10.6).

6.24 There is one complication: the -σ- of the second person singular is squeezed out and disappears in the present, future, imperfect, and aorist tenses, and the neutral morph -ε- (or the -α- in the aorist) then contracts with the vowel that follows the lost -σ- into a diphthong or long vowel.

6.25 The indicative and subjunctive middle paradigm flexions for λύω are:

	INDICATIVE: Primary Tenses	Secondary Tenses	SUBJUNCTIVE
S1 2 3 P1 2 3	Present Future Perfect λύομαι λύσομαι λέλυμαι λύῃλύει λύσῃ λέλυσαι λύεται λύσεται λέλυται λυόμεθα λυσόμεθα λελύμεθα λύεσθε λύσεσθε λέλυσθε λύονται λύσονται λέλυνται	Imperfect 1st Aorist ἐλυομην ἐλυσάμην ἐλύου ἐλύσω ἐλύετο ἐλύσατο ἐλυόμεθα ἐλυσάμεθα ἐλύεσθε ἐλύσασθε ἐλύοντο ἐλύσαντο	Present Aorist λύωμαι λύσωμαι λύῃ λύσῃ λύηται λύσηται λυώμεθα λυσώμεθα λύησθε λύσησθε λύωνται λύσωναι

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 79

ς λύῃ λύσῃ

6.26 As in the active voice, there are two tenses of the subjunctive in common use, the present and the aorist. The present subjunctive middle is the same as the present indicative middle but with the neutral morph -ε- or -ο- lengthened to -η- and -ω- respectively (and iota being subscript on -η-). Thus the subjunctive morph (as in the active voice) is not something that is added to the word, but a process morph¹⁸. Again, as in the active, the aorist subjunctive middle is identical with the present subjunctive middle but with the aorist morph -σ- inserted between the lexal and the endings. This means that in the subjunctive the aorist follows the primary pattern of endings (and has no augment, and does not relate to past time) — contrast its secondary pattern in the indicative mode.

6.27 There are two possible forms of the 2nd person singular present indicative, λύῃ and λύει. Both forms are identical with others which occur elsewhere in the paradigms — λύει with the 3rd person singular present indicative active (#2.81) and λύῃ with the 3rd person singular present sub-junctive active (#4.21) and also with the 2nd person singular present subjunctive middle (#6.25). Usually the context will make it clear which form is intended (just as the context in English will usually make it clear, when one sees "read", "put", etc., whether the present or past tense is meant). But occasionally (in Greek, as in English) a form is encountered which is ambiguous.

6.28 Another pair of identical forms, to which the same comments apply, are the 2nd person singular future indicative middle and aorist subjunctive middle, both of which are λύσῃ (#6.25).

6.29 The present, aorist and perfect middle for the imperative, infinitive and participle are:

IMPERATIVE:	Present	First Aorist	Perfect
SINGULAR 2	λύου	λῦσαι	λέλυσο
3	λυέσθω	λυσάσθω	λελύσθω
PLURAL 2	λύεσθε	λύσασθε	λέλυσθε
3	λυέσθωσαν	λυσάσθωσαν	λελύσθωσαν
INFINITIVE:	λύεσθαι	λύσασθαι	λελύσθαι
PARTICIPLE:	λυόμενος, -η, -ον	λυσάμενος, -η, -ον	λελυμένος, -η, -ον

6.3 POINTS TO NOTE

6.31 The 2nd person plural present, λύεσθε, is the same in form for the imperative (see above) as for the indicative (#6.25); we have already noted that this was true also for the active voice (λύετε: #3.51). Similarly, the 2nd plural imperative of the perfect, λέλυσθε (see above) is also the same as the indicative (#6.25). In the aorist indicative and imperative, these same forms are distinguished only by the augment — it is prefixed to the aorist form in the indicative (ἐλύσασθε), but absent in the imperative (λύσασθε). The forms for other persons and numbers are distinctive.

6.32 Another pair of identical forms needs now to be noted: the 2nd person singular aorist middle imperative, λῦσαι (#6.29), is the same in form as that for the aorist infinitive (see #4.21).

6.33 Future Middle forms can occur for the infinitive and participle — as usual, they are the same as for the present, with the future morph added in in Slot 6. These forms are very rare.

6.34 The letters -σθ- comprise the specifier morph (Slot 8) for the middle imperative and infinitive; but this morph is absent from the forms for all tenses of the 2nd person singular imperative. Nor does it occur in the flexions of the indicative middle (except, incidentally, in the 2nd person plural forms) — these forms have to be identified as middle by the distinctive sets of middle pronoun suffixes which they have, which bear some similarities to the equivalent suffixes for the active but are distinguishably different from them. However, when -σθ- does occur in Slot 8 in a word, it identifies that word form as middle.

80 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

6.35

The morph -μεν- occurs in all middle participles and only in middle participles, and thus is a specifier morph (Slot 8): it effectively identifies any word in which it occurs as being a middle participle form. It can be noted that each participle consists of: the lexal, the aspect morph (the neutral morph -ο- for the present tense, -σα- for the first aorist, and prefixed reduplication for the perfect), the specifier morph for the middle participle, -μεν-, and then the respective numbercase endings of the First and Second Declensions. In all tenses, the middle participle declines in the pattern of the First and Second Declensions (see the complete set of paradigm flexions in Appendix D, #D5.14—D5.16).

6.36 NOTE THAT the specifier morph occupies the eighth of the verb's nine morph slots.

6.37 However, it is about to be explained (#6.5) that all the various middle forms for the future and aorist tenses can be "switched" to the passive voice by the insertion of the passive morph in Slot 5, and the middle forms for the present/imperfect and the perfect tenses can be either middle or passive in meaning.

6.38 The same linguistic modification rules given earlier (#4.5) apply when adding -σ- and when adding the endings of the perfect tense to a consonant verb stem. (Further details of these linguistic modifications are set out in #10.45.) In almost all cases, the verb, and the effect of the -σ- or the fact that it is perfect tense (as the case may be), will be easily recognizable. Difficult and irregular cases will be explained fully in your Analysis (Zerwick and Grosvenor, or Rienecker and Rogers) when you encounter them in reading your Greek New Testament.

6.4 THE FUTURE INDICATIVE AND THE OTHER MODES OF ΕΙΜΙ

6.41 The verb εἰμί is deponent in the future indicative, and has the lexal ἐ- and the endings of the middle of λύω (but note that the 3rd person singular form is ἔσται, not "ἐσεται*").

6.42	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	IMPERATIVE	INFINITIVE	PARTICIPLE
	Future	Present	Present	Present: εἶναι	ὤν οὖσα ὄν
S1	ἔσομαι	ὦ	—	Future: ἔσεσθαι	ἐσόμενος, -η, -ον
2 3 P1 2 3	ἔσῃ    ἔσται    ἐσόμεθα    ἔσεσθε    ἔσονται	ᾖς    ᾖ    ὦμεν    ἦτε    ὦσι(ν)	ἴσθι    ἔστω/ἤτω    —    ἔστε    ἔστωσαν		(The declension of ὦν follows #D5.11. See #C6, Conjugation Conspectus, for the εἰμί Paradigm.)

6.43 NOTE> that there are several forms of the subjunctive and participle of which are differentiated from other words only by their accent, breathing, and/or iota subscript (and two forms, in fact, which are identical with others):

(a) The 1st person singular subjunctive ὦ is identical in form with the exclamation "0" or "oh".

(b) The 2nd person singular subjunctive ᾖς differs only in having an iota subscript from ἦς the 2nd person singular imperfect of εἰμί (#3.81).

(c) The 3rd person singular subjunctive ᾖ differs in accent and iota subscript from ἤ "or" or "than" (#4.15).

(d) The 2nd person plural ἦτε is identical in form for the subjunctive and the imperfect of εἰμί

(e) The masculine nominative singular participle ὤν [see also #8.34(a)] is to be distinguished from ὧν the genitive plural of the relative pronoun (#4.15) by the breathing and accent.

(f) The neuter nominative singular participle ὄν is to be distinguished from ὅν the masculine accusative singular of the relative pronoun (#4.15) by its breathing.

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 81

6.5 THE PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE

6.50 The passive voice in Greek is a distinct voice different from the active and middle in sense. However, it only has distinctive passive forms – with the passive morph – in the future and aorist tenses; for the present and perfect tense systems, the passive borrows and uses the corresponding forms of the middle voice. This means that whenever the middle forms of the durative or perfective are used, they could be either middle or passive in meaning. Thus it becomes a question of exegesis and interpretation to say which is intended.

	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	IMPERATIVE
S1 2 3 P1 2 3	Present Future Perfect Imperfect Aorist † λυθήσομαι † † ἐλύθην λυθήσῃ ἐλύθης λυθήσεται ἐλύθη λυθησόμεθα ἐλύθημεν λυθήσεσθε ἐλύθητε λυθήσονται ἐλύθησαν	Present Aorist † λυθῶ λυθῇς λυθῇ λυθῶμεν λυθῆτε λυθῶσιν	Present Aorist — — † λύθητι λυθήτω — — λύθητε λυθητωσαν
	INFINITIVE
	† λυθήσεσθαι † — λυθῆναι
	PARTICIPLE
	† λυθησόμενος † — λυθείς, λυθεῖσα, λυθέν, λυθέντος

Points to notice:

6.51 In the table, a dash (—) indicates that the form does not exist; an obelus (†) means that there are no special passive forms for that flexion but instead in these cases the middle forms are used for the passive voice as well as for the middle voice.

6.52 The passive morph is -θε-, the -ε- of which lengthens into -η- before a consonant (except in the aorist participle), and contracts with the following vowel (the lengthened neutral morph) in the subjunctive. There is thus for most verbs a very clear indication of the passive in all its special forms. The passive morph occupies the fifth of the verb's nine morph slots.

6.53 The aorist indicative passive is formed by adding the passive morph -θε- (which lengthens to -θη-) to the lexal, and to this are then added directly the endings of the third aorist active (from which in fact the passive was developed, as described in #C3.86; see also #7.72-7.73). That is to say, like the third aorist, the aorist passive does not have an aspect morph.

6.54 The future indicative passive is formed from the aorist indicative passive by replacing the final -ν of the flexion form with -σομαι, that is, with the endings of the future middle flexion. Thus the presence of the passive morph -θη- is the sole feature which distinguishes the future passive from the future middle. That is, -θη- switches the verb form from middle voice to passive voice.

6.55 The aorist subjunctive passive has the same pronoun endings as the aorist subjunctive active (#4.21), adding them to the passive morph -θε-, which is taken instead of the active/middle punctiliar morph -σ-. The -ε- of the passive morph then contracts (#6.8) with the endings, and this contraction is marked by the circumflex accent over the contracted long vowels.

6.56 There are, however, some verbs which make their passive flexion without the -θ- of the passive morph (so that in these verbs the passive morph is just -ε- or -η-: this flexion is called a direct flexion – these are discussed below, in #10.9 and #C4); and at times some of the forms of these verbs may not immediately be recognized as passives because of the absence of the -θ- of the

82 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

usual passive morph. The future passive is always derived directly from the form of the aorist passive, so if the latter is a direct flexion, then the future passive will be a direct flexion also.

6.57 The ending of the 2nd person singular imperative passive is -θι, which would give the form "λύθηθι". However, Greek seeks to avoid having successive syllables commencing with an aspirate (see #E2.8). The passive morph -θε- never loses its aspiration, so the aspiration is lost from the ending, which becomes -τι, and thus the form is λύθητι. But when the imperative ending is added to any verb which has a direct flexion, that ending is -θι, because in the case of a direct flexion the ending does not follow another -θ-. The remaining forms of the aorist passive imperative have the same pronoun endings as the aorist active imperative (#4.21).

6.58 The feminine participle, λυθεῖσα, having a sibilant stem, is declined like δόξα (#3.15); the masculine and neuter forms λυθείς, λυθέν, genitive λυθέντος) follow the usual Third Declension pattern (see ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος, in #5.44) and are set out in full in Appendix D, #D5.17.

6.59 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: The λύω compound ἀπολύω is the word for "I divorce", and λύω itself has this meaning when used in a context about marriage, and in such a context δέω refers to being in the marriage bond (Romans 7:2; 1 Corinthians 7:39; cf. 1 Corinthians 7:15). As there is no separate Greek flexion for the passive perfect tense, the middle forms are used (#6.50, 6.51). Thus the form λέλυσαι (see #6.25) means "you have been loosed" or, in a context relating to marriage, "you have been divorced"; and similarly δέδεσαι means "you have become joined in the bonds of marriage". In each case the perfect tense form is looking at the present state resulting from a prior act [#4.31(c)].

These words occur in 1 Corinthians 7:27, where Paul says, in a context about marriage, δέδεσαι γυναικί; μὴ ζήτει λύσιν, "Have you become bound [in marriage] to a wife? Do not seek a divorce." He then goes on, λέλυσαι ἀπὸ γυναικός; μὴ ζήτει γυναῖκα, "Have you been divorced from a wife? Do not seek a wife." He then immediately adds, ἐὰνδὲ καὶ γαμήσῃς, οὐχ ἥματες, "But if indeed you do marry, you have not sinned." The construction shows that Paul is addressing the same person, the one who has been divorced, when he says "But if indeed you do marry". Paul's teaching is clear in the Greek: If you have entered a marriage, do not seek to break that marriage bond with your wife. If you have become divorced, do not seek for a new wife. But if you (the person who has been divorced) do marry, then this remarriage is not a sin.

This teaching is in line with what Paul has said earlier in this chapter: as the Lord himself commanded, marriage partners are not to break up (verse 10, citing Matthew 19:6). If a marriage does break up, then the former marriage partner is now ἄγαμος, "unmarried" — let that person continue unmarried in hope that there can be a reconciliation (verse 11). However, speaking realistically, such a reconciliation may not be possible: what then? In verse 8 Paul addresses all who are ἄγαμοι (and, as we have just seen, the word includes those who are divorced). He tells them to see if they can now remain unmarried as he himself did, but adds that if they cannot live celibate then γαμησάτωσαν, "they must marry" — third person aorist imperative (verse 9).

If you know Greek, you will recognize the significance, for understanding Paul's meaning, of these words ἄγαμοι, γαμησάτωσαν, and the perfect tense λέλυσαι. Some versions of the Bible translate λέλυσαι in 1 Corinthians 7:27 as a present tense (for example, NRSV, "Are you free from a wife?"; and the very ambiguous NIV, "Are you unmarried?"), obscuring the fact that when Paul says "you have not sinned" he is addressing someone who has been divorced and has remarried.

6.6 SELF-TESTING REVIEW

6.61 MEANING SYNOPSIS OF THE GREEK VERB: You have now been introduced to all nine morph slots of the Greek verb. And all the forms of Paradigm C1.1, λύω, have now been introduced (except the rarely used optative, and perfect subjunctive). The flexion form for each flexion, and its meaning, will be found set out in the Meaning Synopsis of the Greek Verb, #C0.4.

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 83

6.62

REVIEW the Indicative Mode (#C0.43), and satisfy yourself that you can correctly identify the tense and voice, and the meaning, of each of these forms. To do this, cover the right-hand (English meaning) part of each column with a piece of paper, exposing only the left-hand Greek forms, and alongside each Greek word write on your piece of paper its tense, voice and meaning. Remove the paper and verify the correctness of your answers. To extend your knowledge further, you can do this with the other modes also.

6.63 COMPLETE PARADIGM OF THE VERB: The complete paradigm of the forms of λύω is set out in #C1.1. Go through this paradigm to ensure that you are familiar (except for the optative) with the verb patterns given there, and know them well enough to recognize the characteristic morphs which indicate person, number, tense, voice, and mode.

6.64 DIAGRAM OF THE NINE VERB MORPH SLOTS: Note #A6.2 and A6.3, which set out a complete diagram of the nine morph slots of the verb and of what morphs can occur in each slot.

6.7 CONCERNING THE SECOND AORIST AND THE IMPERFECT

6.71 It has been seen (#4.23, #4.37) that the first aorist active is formed by prefixing the augment to the verb lexal and adding first the punctiliar morph -σα- (-σ- before vowels) and then the active suffixes of the pronoun ending. Thus the 1st person plural first aorist active of λύω is ἐ-λυ-σα-μεν. The second aorist active is formed in the same way, but with the neutral morph -ε/ο-used instead of the punctiliar morph (#3.81, #4.36). Thus the 1st person plural second aorist active of βάλλω is ἐ-βαλ-ο-μην.

6.72 This pattern is followed by the aorist in the middle voice also, the fact that the form is middle not active being indicated by the use of the middle suffixes of the pronoun ending. Thus the 1st person singular of the first aorist middle, as seen in λύω, is ἐ-λυ-σα-μην, and the 1st person singular of the second aorist middle, as seen in βάλλω, is ἐ-βαλ-ο-μην.

6.73 The imperfect is also formed by adding to the lexal: an augment, the neutral morph, and the appropriate pronoun suffix. This means that for Second Conjugation verbs (that is, those with a second aorist), the only difference between their imperfect and aorist flexions is in their lexal. Seven Second Conjugation verbs use completely different lexals in the present (and these are set out in #7.6); most of the rest — there are only two exceptions — add an extra morph to their lexal as a durative morph in forming their durative stem, for the present and imperfect tenses. For βάλλω this durative morph is the second -λ- which is added to the verb root βαλ-. Thus the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative Middle flexions, and the flexions for other modes of the second aorist middle, are:

	IMPERFECT	SECOND AORIST	PRESENT
S1 2 3 P1 2 3	Indicative ἐβαλλόμην ἐβάλλου ἐβάλλετο ἐβαλλόμεθα ἐβάλλεσθε ἐβάλλοντο	Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Infinitive ἐβαλόμην βάλωμαι βαλέσθαι ἐβάλου βάλῃ βαλοῦ Participle ἐβάλετο βάληται βαλέσθω βαλόμενος ἐβαλόμεθα βαλώμεθα βαλομένη ἐβάλεσθε βάλησθε βάλεσθε βαλόμενον ἐβάλοντο βάλωνται βαλέσθωσαν βαλομένου	Infinitive βαλλέσθαι Participle βαλλόμενος βαλλομένη βαλλόμενον βαλλομένου

Infinitive

6.74 Compare the forms of the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative, and note that the only difference between them is whether they do or do not have the second -λ-, the durative morph. Similarly, this is the only difference between the forms of the Present and the Aorist in the other modes (the forms of the Present Infinitive and Participle are given here alongside those of the Aorist for comparison).

84 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

6.75 The durative morph is added into the verb's lexal, and thus in morphologizing the verb (#3.93) the durative morph will be placed with the lexal in the lexal slot (Slot 4). A morph which is placed into the lexal in this way is termed an infix (#1.92). The durative morph in the lexal is the only infix which occurs in Greek — all other morphs are prefixes or suffixes or process morphs. [A partial exception to this is the iota added into the lexal of some liquid verbs in compensation for the loss of the punctiliar -σ-: see #4.57(a).]

6.8 CONTRACT VERBS (PARADIGMS C1.2, C1.3 AND C1.4)

6.81 The most numerous group of Greek verbs (404 out of a total of 1000 verbs in the New Testament) are those which end in a short vowel, either -α (78), -ε (235), or -ο (91). In the durative tenses (the present and imperfect), the neutral morph is added to the lexal, which in the case of these verbs will mean adding ε or ο (or when the neutral morph has been lengthened, η or ω) to the short vowel (-α, -ε or -ο). When they thus come together, these two vowels (the short vowel of the lexal and the neutral morph) combine and form either a long vowel or a diphthong. This combining is known as contraction, and these verbs which contract the final vowel of their lexal with the neutral morph are therefore known as "Short Vowel Verbs" and also "contract verbs".

6.82 Contraction takes place in accordance with specific rules. These rules are given in detail in #E2.2; the common ones (which therefore need to be noted now) are set out here:

This table shows the contractions which take place.

When it is followed by		ε	η	ει	ῃ	ο	ου	ω
then: α	contracts to	α	α	ᾳ	ᾳ	ω	ω	ω
ε	contracts to	ει	η	ει	ῃ	ου	ου	ω
ο	contracts to	ου	ω	οι	οι	ου	ου	ω

6.83 Points to note:

    (a) Any short vowel plus ω is absorbed into it.

    (b) α plus ε or η becomes long α; if there is an ι, it will be iota subscript on the long α.

    (c) α plus ο, ου or ω becomes ω.

    (d) ε plus ε or ει becomes ει.

    (e) ε plus η or ῃ is absorbed into it.

    (f) ε plus ο or ου, ο plus ε, ο, or ου becomes ου.

    (g) ο plus η becomes ω.

    (h) ο plus ει or ῃ becomes οι.

6.84 NOTE the accent on a contracted form. Where an acute accent would fall on the short final vowel in the uncontracted form, then the contracted vowel/diphthong will bear a circumflex. Thus τιμάω contracts to τιμῶ, λαλέομεν to λαλοῦμεν, πληρόεις to πληροῖς, and so on. This circumflex accent should be noted, because frequently it fulfils a useful role in alerting you to a contraction. (This is the tenth occasion when an accent should be noted; for earlier ones, see #A1.37, #2.88, #3.37, #4.15, #4.94, #A4.23, #5.86, #5.88, and #6.43.)

6.85 The above information should assist in enabling you to recognize a contract verb form when you encounter one. Contract verbs in -α, -ε, and -ο comprise respectively Paradigms C1.2, C1.3 and C1.4 of the First Conjugation, and these paradigms, showing both the uncontracted and contracted forms, are set out in Appendix C under these references. In tenses other than the present and imperfect, the suffix that is added to the lexal commences with a consonant, and so no contraction of vowels occurs.

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 85

6.86 All contract verbs are listed in the lexicon in their uncontracted form, because you need to know what that uncontracted form is. But they are always used in their contracted form. In practice ou will have little difficulty in recognizing and identifying a contract verb from its features — you will at times, however, have to check on the three possibilities for the lexical form of a contract verb (whether the lexal has -α, -ε, or -ο), because the form used in a Greek passage will not always reveal if the verb ends in -αω, -εω, or -οω).

6.87 As noted in #4.56 and #A4.23, liquid verbs add -ε not -σ in forming the future tense. But the neutral morph is then added to the future morph in forming the future. This means that the future tense of liquid verbs thus always has an -ε- (future morph) followed by a neutral morph. It is therefore a contract flexion, and follows the pattern of λαλέω, C1.3. Liquid verbs comprise Paradigms C1.8 and C1.9 of the First Conjugation, and these paradigms are set out in Appendix C under those references. In addition to those mentioned there, two other contracted futures occur in the New Testament: the deponents (ἀπο)θανέομαι, from (ἀπο)θνῄσκω (see #C2.4, #C7.6), and πεσέομαι, from πίπτω (see #C2.1).

6.88 Contraction also occurs in the other verb flexion where a short vowel is followed by another vowel: in the aorist passive subjunctive (#6.50), where the passive morph -Oe- is followed by the lengthened neutral morph. The same principles of contraction will operate in these forms.

6.9 THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

6.91 The reflexive pronouns refer to something directed towards oneself, as in "You shall love your neighbour as (you love) yourself'.

6.92 There can be no nominative; it declines in the oblique cases on the pattern of αὐτός (#3.32). There are forms for the three persons in the singular, but there was only one form in the plural, used for all persons. For first and second person singular, "myself" and "yourself", there were both masculine and feminine forms, and in the third person all three genders can be found.

6.93

ἐμαυτόν, -ήν	1st person singular, "myself"
σεαυτόν, -ήν	2nd person singular, "yourself"
ἑαυτόν, -ήν, -ό	3rd person singular, "himself", etc.
ἑαυτούς, -άς, -ά	1st/2nd/3rd plural, "ourselves", "yourselves", "themselves"

ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON SIX

1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are:

    12. Present Indicative Middle of λύω (#6.25): λύομαι

    13. Perfect Indicative Middle of λύω (#6.25): λέλυμαι

    14. Imperfect Indicative Middle of λύω (#6.25): ἐλυόμην

    15. Other Modes of the Middle (#6.29): Present Imperative, Infinitive and Participle of λύω

    16. Future Indicative of εἰμί (#6.42): ἔσομαι

    17. Aorist Passive Indicative of λύω (#6.50): ἐλύθην

2. LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE: Aim to understand how the other flexions are formed from these ones set for rote learning, so that you will be able to recognize the forms of those other flexions which result. That is, seek to learn the forms of the other flexions by understanding rather than by rote.

3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in the Appendix, #A6. Especially NOTE the diagram of the Morph Slots of the Verb.

86 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson.

5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it.

6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 6 (for "Lesson 6") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some words will be used in several Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.)

7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12.

PREPOSITIONS

*διά (+acc) because of, on account of *ἕως (+gen) until ὁπίσω (+gen) after

A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK

(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.)

	SENTENCES	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
A1.	And (Se) why do you call me, 'Lord, Lord', and do not do what I say?" (LUKE 6:46)	call: *καλέω
A2.	The stars will fall from the heaven. (MATTHEW 24:29)	star: ἀστήρ, -έρος, ὁ; fall: *πίπτω; future: πεσέομαι
A3.	For our (emphatic) citizenship is in (the) heavens, out of which also we expectantly await a saviour, (the) Lord Jesus Christ. (PHILIPPIANS 3:20)	citizenship: πολίτευμα, -ατος, τό; be, exist: *ὑπάρχω; expectantly await: ἀπεκδέχομαι
A4.	You shall call his name Jesus, for he (emphatic) will save his people from their sins. (MATTHEW 1:21)	future of *καλέω: καλέσω; people, a people: *λαός, -οῦ, ὁ
A5.	His father was a Greek. (ACTS 16:3)	was: imperfect of *ὑπάρχω; a Greek: Ἕλλην, -ηνος, ὁ
A6.	Jesus said to him, "Do you (emphatic) believe in (εἰς) the Son of Man?" That man answered and said, "And who is he, Lord, in order that I should believe in him?" (JOHN 9:35-36)	answered: ἀποκρίθη (from *ἀποκρίνομαι, passive deponent)

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 87

B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A superscript number (as in aor²) is used to indicate a Second or Third Conjugation verb (as the case may be).

B1.	καὶ ἐλθὼν εὐηγγελίσατο εἰρήνην ὑμῖν τοῖς μακρὰν καὶ τοῖς ἐγγύς· (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΦΕΣΙΟΥΣ 2:17)	εὐηγγελίσατο: 3sg aor. from *εὐαγγελίζω: proclaim, preach good news
B2.	Ἀπεκρίθη αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἐγὼ παρρησίᾳ ἐλάλησα τῷ κόσμῳ· ἐγὼ πάντοτε ἐδίδαξα ἐν συναγωγῇ καὶ ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ, ὅπου πάντοτε οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι συνέρχονται, καὶ ἐν κρυπτῷ ἐλάλησα οὐδέν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:20)	παρρησίᾳ: openly/plainly/freely (dat. sg of παρρησία, openness); πάντοτε: always; *ἱερόν, -οῦ, τό: temple; *ὅπου: where; συνέρχομαι (dep.): come together; κρυπτός -ή -όν: secret
B3.	Καὶ προσελθὼν ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἐλάλησεν αὐτοῖς, λέγων, Ἐδόθη μοι πᾶσα ἐξουσία ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς. Πορευθέντες μαθητεύσατε πάντα τὰ ἔθνη, βαπτίζοντες αὐτοὺς εἰς τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ Πατρὸς καὶ τοῦ Υἱοῦ καὶ τοῦ Ἁγίου Πνεύματος· διδάσκοντες αὐτοὺς τηρεῖν πάντα ὅσα ἐνετειλάμην ὑμῖν· καὶ ἰδού, ἐγὼ μεθ’ ὑμῶν εἰμι πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας ἕως τῆς συντελείας τοῦ αἰῶνος. Ἀμήν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 28:18-20)	ἐδόθη: 3sg aor. pass. from *δίδωμι, give; *ἐξουσία, -ας, ἡ: authority; πορευθέντες: aor. ptc from *πορεύομαι (dep.), go (ptc followed by an impv. means "go and .. ."); μαθητεύω: make a disciple (2pl aor. impv); *τηρέω: keep, observe, watch; *ὅσος -η -ον: as much (many, great) as; ἐντέλλομαι (dep., + dat.): command, order; πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας = always (Hebraism); συντέλεια, -ας, ἡ: completion, end
B4.	Τότε ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν τοῖς μαθηταῖς αὐτοῦ , Εἴ τις θέλει ὀπίσω μου ἐλθεῖν, ἀπαρνησάσθω ἑαυτόν, καὶ ἀράτω τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἀκολουθείτω μοι. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 16:24)	ἀπαρνησάσθω: 3sg aor. impv from ἀπαρνέομαι (dep.): deny, disown, renounce; *ἑαυτόν: oneself (reflexive) — see #6.9; ἀράτω: 3sg aor. impv of *αἴρω: take up, lift up; σταυρός, -οῦ, ὁ: (the) cross; *ἀκολουθέω: follow (takes dative)
B5.	Τότε δύο ἔσονται ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ· ὁ εἷς παραλαμβάνεται, καὶ ὁ εἷς ἀφίεται. Δύο ἀλήθουσαι ἐν τῷ μύλωνι· μία παραλαμβάνεται, καὶ μία ἀφίεται. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 24.40-41)	παραλαμβάνω: take away, take along; ἀφίεται: 3sg pres pass. of *ἀφίημι, leave behind, forsake; ἀλήθουσαι: fem. pl pres. ptc of ἀλήθω): grind; μύλος, -ου, ὁ: mill/millstone
B6.	Μὴ θησαυρίζετε ὑμῖν θησαυροὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, ὅπου σὴς καὶ βρῶσις ἀφανίζει, καὶ ὅπου κλέπται διορύσσουσιν καὶ κλέπτουσιν· θησαυρίζετε δὲ ὑμῖν θησαυροὺς ἐν οὐρανῷ, ὅπου οὔτε σὴς οὔτε βρῶσις ἀφανίζει, καὶ ὅπου κλέπται οὐ διορύσσουσιν οὐδὲ κλέπτουσιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 6:19-21)	θησαυρίζω: store up, accumulate; θησαυρός, -οῦ, ὁ: treasure; ark, σής, -ητός, ὁ: (clothes-)moth; βρῶσις, -εως, ἡ, corrosion, rust; ἀφανίζω: ruin, destroy; κλέπτης, -ου, ὁ: thief; κλέπτω: steal; διορύσσω: dig through, break through; *οὔτε … οὔτε … : neither … nor …

88 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

B7.	Καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Πορευθέντες ἀπαγγείλατε Ἰωάννῃ ἃ ἀκούετε καὶ βλέπετε· τυφλοὶ ἀναβλέπουσιν, καὶ χωλοὶ περιπατοῦσιν, λεπροὶ καθαρίζονται, καὶ κωφοὶ ἀκούουσιν, νεκροὶ ἐγείρονται, καὶ πτωχοὶ εὐαγγελίζονται· καὶ μακάριός ἐστιν, ὃς ἐὰν μὴ σκανδαλισθῇ ἐν ἐμοί. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 11:4-6)	ἀπαγγέλλω: announce, report, inform (2p1 aor. impv); ἀναβλέπω: see again; χωλός, -ή, -όν: lame; *περιπατέω: walk around, move about, [live one's life]; λεπρός, -οῦ, ὁ: leper; καθαρίζω: cleanse, make clean; κωφός, -ή, -όν: deaf; dumb; *νεκρός, -ά, -όν: dead; *ἐγείρω: raise (3p1 pass.); πτωχός, -ή, -όν: poor; *μακάριος, -ία, -ον: blessed, happy, fortunate; σκανδαλίζω cause to stumble, give offence, anger (someone) — in the pass., take offence, be made angry
B8.	(α)Ἄλλους ἔσωσεν, σωσάτω ἑαυτόν, εἰ οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ χριστός, τοῦ θεοῦ ὁ ἐκλεκτός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 23:35)	*ἑαυτόν: #6.93; ἐκλεκτός, -ή, -όν: elect, chosen;
	(β) Εἰ σὺ εἶ ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων , σῶσον σεαυτόν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 23:37)
	(γ) Εἷς δὲ τῶν κρεμασθέντων κακούργων ἐβλασφήμει αὐτόν , λέγων, Εἰ σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστός, σῶσον σεαυτὸν καὶ ἡμᾶς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 23:39)
	(δ) Ἰησοῦ, Μνήσθητί μου, κύριε, ὅταν ἔλθῃς ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ σου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 23:42)	μνήσθητι: 2sg dep. aor. impv. from μιμνῄσκομαι (dep., takes gen.): remember (something, someone); *ὅταν: whenever (indefinite — contrast the decisiveness of Christ's reply: "today");
	(ε) Ἀμὴν λέγω σοι, σήμερον μετ’ ἐμοῦ ἔσῃ ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 23:43)	σήμερον: today, this very day; παράδεισος, -ου, ὁ: paradise, garden
B9.	Ἄξιος εἶ, ὁ κύριος καὶ ὁ θεὸς ἡμῶν, ὁ ἅγιος, λαβεῖν τὴν δόξαν καὶ τὴν τιμὴν καὶ τὴν δύναμιν· ὅτι σὺ ἔκτισας πάντα, καὶ διὰ τὸ θέλημά σου ἦσαν καὶ ἐκτίσθησαν. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 4:11)	ἄξιος -ία -ον: worthy, deserving; λαβεῖν: aor2 inf. from *λαμβάνω: receive, take; τιμή, -ῆς, ἡ: honour, respect; *δύναμις, -εως, ἡ: power; ἔκτισας: 2sg aor. pass. from κτίζω: create; θέλημα, -ατος, τό: will; ἐκτίσθησαν: 3pl aor. pass. from κτίζω: create
B10.	Καὶ ἤκουσα φωνῆς μεγάλης ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ, λεγούσης, Ἰδού, ἡ σκηνὴ τοῦ θεοῦ μετὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, καὶ σκηνώσει μετ’ αὐτῶν, καὶ αὐτοὶ λαὸς αὐτοῦ ἔσονται, καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ θεὸς ἔσται μετ’ αὐτῶν· καὶ ἐξαλείψει πᾶν δάκρυον ἀπὸ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν αὐτῶν, καὶ ὁ θάνατος οὐκ ἔσται ἔτι· οὔτε πένθος, οὔτε κραυγή, οὔτε πόνος οὐκ ἔσται ἔτι· ὅτι τὰ πρῶτα ἀπῆλθον. Καὶ εἶπεν ὁ καθήμενος ἐπὶ τῷ θρόνῳ, Ἰδού, πάντα καινὰ ποιῶ. Καὶ λέγει μοι, Γράψον· ὅτι οὗτοι οἱ λόγοι ἀληθινοὶ καὶ πιστοί εἰσιν. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 21:3-5)	*θρόνος, -ου, ὁ: throne; λεγούσης: fem. sg gen. ptc from *λέγω, agreeing with φωνῆς; σκηνή, -ῆς, ἡ: tent, dwelling; σκηνόω: live, dwell; αὐτὸς ὁ θεός: God himself (*αὐτός in front of the article = self); ἐξαλείφω: wipe away; δάκρυον, -ου, τό: tear; *θάνατος, -ου, ὁ: death; ἔτι. still, longer; πένθος, -ους, τό: sorrow, sadness, grief; κραυγή, -ῆς, ἡ: crying, shout; πόνος, -ου, ὁ: pain, suffering; ἀληθινός -ή -όν: true, genuine

SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

B11. MARK 6:1-6

B12. JOHN 1:1-5

LESSON SEVEN

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; THE SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS

7.1 CORRESPONDING ADJECTIVES/PRONOUNS

7.11 Greek contains sets of adjectives/pronouns which differ in function and are related in meaning (and often, in root). These corresponding sets are:

TYPE	INTERROGATIVE	INDEFINITE	DEMONSTRATIVE	RELATIVE
Identification	τίς; who?	τις anyone	ὁ, ὅδε, οὗτος this (one) ἐκεῖνος that, that one	ὅς who, which ὅστις who-, whichever
Quantity	πόσος; how much/many?	ποσός of some quantity	τοσοῦτος so (as) much/many/great (as)	ὅσος as great/much/many as
Quality	ποῖος of what kind? ποταπός of what kind?	ποιός of some kind	τοιόσδε of such kind τοιοῦτος of such kind	οἷος of what kind ὁποῖος such as
Size	πηλίκος how large/great?	-	τηλικοῦτος so large, so great	ἡλίκος how large/great
Distribution	πότερος which of the two?	-	ἕτερος the one or the other/another/different ἄλλος other ἕκαστος each, each one	-

7.12 Most of these words can occur either with a noun (that is, the word is functioning as an adjective), or without a noun (that is, the word is functioning as a pronoun).

7.13 Note how τοσοῦτος, τοιοῦτος and τηλικοῦτος are formed by replacing the initial ῾/τ- of οὗτος with τοσ-, τοι- and τηλικ- respectively. The declension of the flexion of each of these words follows οὗτος.

7.14 ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε is a demonstrative pronoun/adjective formed by adding the enclitic δε to the definite article, which is declined in the ordinary way. Its meaning is the same as that of οὗτος: "this/these" (without a noun, "this man/woman/thing"). It does not often occur in the New Testament, and the majority of its occurrences is in the expression τάδε λέγει plus the speaker in the nominative, as in Acts 21:11, Τάδε λέγει τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον, "These things says the Holy Spirit."

7.15 ὅστις, ἥτις, ὄ τι is a relative pronoun similar in meaning to ὅς, ἥ, ὅ, but made rather general or indefinite by the addition of -τις, meaning "whoever, everyone who", etc. The neuter ὄ τι is often written that way, as two words, to distinguish it from ὄτι, "that, because". Otherwise the two parts of the word are written in combination together as a single word — but both parts of the word are declined in the usual way, as if they were separate words, to show gender, case, and number. However, the New Testament use of this common Greek word is very limited, and virtually confined to the nominative case and the neuter accusatives, singular and plural. Sometimes the indefinite particle ἄν is also used with ὅστις to stress the indefinite element in its meaning. At times, however, ὅστις is used without any real difference in meaning from the simple form, ὅς.

7.16 In classical Greek, ἕτερος meant "another of a different kind", whereas ἄλλος meant "another of the same kind". Something of this distinction can be found at times in New Testament Greek, but it is not strictly observed.

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90 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

7.2 CORRESPONDING ADVERBS

7.21 Just as Greek had a system of corresponding adjectives/pronouns, so also it had a system of corresponding adverbs. This system had been more complete in classical times, but some of the parts had fallen out of colloquial use in Hellenistic Greek (much as our English patterns "where, whence, whither", "there, thence, thither" and "here, hence, hither" have contracted down to just "where", "there" and "here" and the other forms, if used at all, have a somewhat archaic flavour).

7.22 In particular there is less use of the indefinite forms (which are enclitic — that is, they throw their accent on the word preceding them: see #E6.3).

7.23 The corresponding adverbs are:

TYPE	INTERROGATIVE	INDEFINITE	DEMONSTRATIVE	RELATIVE
Time	πότε; when?	ποτέ at some time	τότε then	ὅτε when ὁπότε when
Place	ποῦ where?	πού somewhere	ἐκεῖ there ἐνθάδε here	οὗ; where ὅπου where
Source	πόθεν; whence?	ποθέν from some place	ἐκεῖθεν thence ἔνθεν from here ἐντεῦθεν from here	ὅθεν from where, whence (ὁπόθεν) from where
Manner	πῶς; how?	πώς somehow	οὕτως thus, in this way	ὡς as, in which way ὅπως in order that
Frequency	ποσάκις; how often?	-	πολλάκις often, frequently	ὁσάκις whenever, as often as

7.24 NOTE that for both corresponding adjectives/pronouns and corresponding adverbs, the interrogative and indefinite forms are spelt the same, but differ in accent. In two-syllable words the interrogative form has the accent on the first syllable and the indefinite form has it on the second syllable, and on monosyllables the interrogative form has a stronger accent than the indefinite form (compare τίς/τις; πόσος/ποσός; ποῖος/ποιός; πότε/ποτέ; ποῦ/πού; πόθεν/ποθέν; πῶς/πώς).

7.3 FORMATION OF ADVERBS: THE REGULAR PATTERN

7.31 Most of the common adverbs of the New Testament are the same in form as the corresponding adjective in the genitive plural, but with -ς instead of -ν.

7.32	Adjective	Its Genitive Plural	Adverb
	ἀληθής true δίκαιος righteous, just κακός bad καλός good ὅμοιος like	ἀληθῶν δικαίων κακῶν καλῶν ὁμοίων	ἀληθῶς truly δικαίως justly κακῶς badly καλῶς well ὁμοίως similarly

7.33 But also note these forms:

7.32	Adjective	Its Genitive Plural	Adverb
	οὕτως this πρῶτος first ἐκεῖνος that ἐκ/ἐξ out of (preposition)	τούτων πρώτων ἐκείνων —	οὕτως thus πρῶτον firstly ἐκεῖ there ἔξω outside

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 91

7.4 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

7.41 The standard or basic form of an adjective or adverb is referred to as the positive degree. There are two other forms which it can have: it can be used in the comparative degree (strictly speaking, comparison of two instances or examples), and the superlative degree (strictly speaking, used of an instance or example that exceeds two or more others). These correspond with the sequence great, greater, greatest; short, shorter, shortest in English, where the comparative and superlative forms are made by the addition of the suffixes -er and -est. For some English words, however, a change in the word is made: as for example in the comparisons good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least.

7.42 There are the same two types of comparatives and superlatives in Greek: those formed by adding a suffix to the positive stem (the more common), and those formed by a change in the form the word itself.

7.43 The comparative suffix is -τερος and the superlative suffix is -τατος. If the second-last vowel of the word is short, then the last vowel will become long in the comparative and superlative stem, before the ending.

Thus:	ὑψηλός, ὑψηλότερος, ὑψηλότατος	high, higher, highest
	σοφός, σοφώτερος, σοφώτατος	wise, wiser, wisest

7.44 The forms in -τερος decline like ἅγιος and the forms in -τατος decline like καλός (see Appendix D, #D4.1 and D4.2).

7.45 These are the adjectives which use different word forms (those in brackets are not found int:he New Testament):

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
ἀγαθός good " " κακός bad " " μέγας great μικρός little " " πολύς much, many —	κρείσσων better (βελτίων) better χείρων worse ἥσσων worse, less μείζων greater μικρότερος less ἐλάσσων less πλείων more —	κράτιστος most excellent (βέλτιστος) best — — μέγιστος greatest — ἐλάχιστος least πλεῖστος most ἔσχατος last

Comparatives in -ων decline like ἄφρων (see Appendix D, #D4.8).

7.46 The comparative of an adverb is the neuter singular of the corresponding comparative adjective. The superlative of an adverb is the neuter plural of the corresponding superlative adjective.

7.47 These are the adverbs which use different forms in the comparative and superlative degrees :hose in brackets are not found in the New Testament):

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
ἐγγύς near εὖ well " " ἡδέως gladly κακῶς badly καλῶς well (μάλα)   πέραν across πολύ much ταχέως quickly	nearer very well better   worse, less better more further more more quickly	ἔγγιστα nearest (βέλτιστα)   —   ἥδιστα most gladly (ἥκιστα)   (κάλλιστα)   μάλιστα most of all — (πλεῖστα) τάχιστα most quickly

92 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

7.48 A comparative may be followed by (a) a genitive of comparison (discussed in #9.44(e); examples, Selections L5/B15; L9/B12); or (b) by ἤ "than", in which instance the things being compared will have the same case. For example:

John 4:1:	Ἰησοῦς	πλείονας μαθητὰς	ποιεῖ	καὶ	βαπτίζει	↙	ἢ	Ἰωάννης
	Jesus	↗	is making	and	is baptizing	more disciples	than	John

7.49 The superlative forms of adjective and adverb are rarely used in the New Testament, and when they do occur they are more likely to have what is called an "elative" sense (that is, they mean "very" or something similar), than they are to have a strict superlative sense. Often, when the superlative is meant, the comparative form is used; and on frequent occasions when a comparative meaning is intended, the positive form is used. For example:

Mark 9:45:	καλόν	ἐστίν	σοι	εἰσελθεῖν	εἰς	τὴν ζωὴν	χωλόν,	ἢ	...κτλ.†
	better	it is	for you	to enter	into	life	lame	than	... etc.

† κτλ. is the abbreviation for καὶ τὰ λοιπά. = "and the rest", equivalent to English "etc."

Mark 14:21 (L9/B16):	καλὸν	ἦν	αὐτῷ	εἰ	οὐκ ἐγεννήθη	ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἐκεῖνος.
	better	it was	for him	if	were not born	that man.

Clearly in these sentences καλόν has the comparative sense, "better", rather than "good", so that these sentences do not mean, "It is good for you to enter into life lame than ... (etc.)", or "It would be good for that man if he had not been born." It is wise to bear this type of usage in mind when translating. However, on most occasions when the positive degree of an adjective is used it does not have comparative meaning, and we must be careful not to read it in. Thus:

Mark 9:5 (L7/B24):	καλόν ἐστιν	ἡμᾶς	ὧδε εἶναι
	It is good	for us	to be here	[not, It is better ...]

7.5 ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES

7.51 ATTRIBUTIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES: Where an adjective is used with an article and noun (that is, identifying the noun by reference to an attribute of that noun), the adjective goes either

(a) between the article and noun, or

(b) after the noun, with the article repeated before the adjective. These are the two forms of what is called the attributive use of the adjective, and these two positions can be described respectively as the Attributive Intermediate Position (that is, between article and noun) and the Attributive Post Position (that is, immediately after the noun, with only the repeated article between them). Some examples from the Selections for this Lesson:

(a) Attributive Intermediate Position

Matthew 27:53 (L7/B1):	εἰσῆλθον	εἰς	τὴν ἁγίαν πόλιν.
	they entered	into	the holy city.

A phrase describing the noun (an adjectival phrase) can be put into the attributive intermediate position. For example, ἐν Λαοδικείᾳ ("in Laodicea") in:

Revelation 3:14 (L7/B2):	Καὶ	τῷ ἀγγέλῳ	τῆς ἐν Λαοδικείᾳ ἐκκλησίας
	And	to the messenger	of the church in Laodicea

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 93

(b) Attributive Post Position

Revelation 21:2 (L7/B3):		τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν	εἶδον
	I saw	the holy city

(Some grammarians hold the view that the attributive post use of the adjective is more emphatic than the attributive intermediate position; but this is not agreed by others.)

If more than one adjective is being used referring to the same noun, the repeated article is only used once in front of both adjectives:

Revelation 3:14 (L7/132):	ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς καὶ ἀληθινός
	the faithful and true witness

7.52 Notice that in both these forms of the attributive position, the adjective has the article immediately in front of it. NOTE: the possessive adjectives ἐμός, "my", and σός, "your" singular), take the article in the same way as any other adjective. (For examples, see L2/B25 and L3/B28 for the Attributive Intermediate Position, and L5/B10 for the Attributive Post Position.) An entire adjectival phrase can be used in this way as if it were an adjective, and the article will be used in front of it (see the discussion of this in #2.97 and an example L2/B5).

7.53 PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES: By contrast, an adjective can be used as the complement of the verb "to be", that is, as the "completement" of the thought. Here, the adjective Is the predicate, and it is placed in the predicative position, which may be either prior to the article and noun (the Predicative Prior Position), or after the article and noun (the Predicative Post Position). Notice that it can never come between the article and its noun, or in any circumstances have the article immediately in front of it. Examples of the two forms of the Predicative Position from the Selections in these Lessons:

c) Predicative Prior Position (with εἰμί)

Hebrews 11:38 (L7/B4):	ὧν	οὐκ ἦν ἄξιος ὁ κόσμος
	of whom	the world was not worthy

Revelation 5:12 (L5/B19):	Ἄξιόν	ἐστιν	τὸ ἀρνίον	τὸ ἐσφαγμένον
	worthy	is	the lamb	that has been slain

d) Predicative Post Position (with εἰμί)

1 Corinthians 3:17 (L7/B5):	ὁ γὰρ ναὸς	τοῦ θεοῦ	ἅγιός ἐστιν
	for the temple	of God	is holy

7.54 As the position of the words is an adequate indication of meaning, the verb "to be" is not really necessary, and so it is often omitted:

e) Predicative Prior Position (without εἰμί)

Luke 1:49 (L7/B6):	καὶ	ἅγιον	τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ
	and	holy is	his name

Luke 10:7 (L7/A5): 1 Timothy 5:18 (L7/B7):

}

{

ἄξιος γὰρ for worthy is

ὁ ἐργάτης the workman

τοῦ μισθοῦ αὐτοῦ of his pay

(f) Predicative Post Position (without εἰμί)

Romans 7:12 (L7/B8):	Ὥστε	ὁ μὲν νόμος	ἅγιος,	καὶ	ἡ ἐντολὴ	ἁγία
	so	the law	is holy	and	the commandment	is holy

94 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

7.55 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: One of the advantages of learning Greek is being able to examine New Testament passages, and compare the wording of different verses. The examples given above – from the Sentences at the end of this Lesson – include two verses which it is interesting to compare. The Scripture of 1 Timothy 5:18 (L7/B7) says, "The Scripture says, 'You shall not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain,' and, 'The laborer deserves to be paid.— (NRSV.) The first of the two quotations of what "the Scripture says" comes from Deuteronomy 25:4. And you can see that the second (L7/A5) is an exact word-for-word quotation of Luke 10:7. That is, one part of the New Testament gives an exact quote of another part of the New Testament, and calls it "Scripture". Now that, as I said, is a very interesting thing, if you think about it.

7.56 The two uses, attributive and predicative, without the verb "to be", can be clearly seen in the following example, which is unambiguous: Revelation 20:5 (L7/B9): avaaramc T1 rpojTri this is the first resurrection

7.57 Note the distinction between the two positions (that is, in the relationships of article and adjective): (a) In the attributive positions, the adjective is always immediately preceded by the article.

(b) In the predicative positions, the adjective is never immediately preceded by the article. The meaning is thus always indicated quite clearly.

7.58 There are however some sentences where the article is not used with adjective and noun. In these instances therefore there could be a potential ambiguity. However, usually the context makes the meaning plain. John 6:9 (L7/B10): Tarn/ gott6aprov cii6e bc 2(£1. 7rEVTE difyrovc Kpteivovc There is a lad here who has five barley loaves

7.59 There are five common words which always take the predicative position (that is, they do not ever have the article immediately preceding them) but which nonetheless have the usual adjectival sense and do not necessarily imply the verb "to be". These are: oZToc ("this"), kiceivoc ("that"), o)Loc ("whole, complete, entire"), rag. ("all"), and dizac (alternative form of Iraq). Examples of their use:

(a) In the Predicative Prior Position John 12:34 (L3/B1): ko-rtv aroc 6 viol Tof) aveparov; who is this son of man?

Mark 12:30 (L5/B15): Kap6iac Gov (K-0,) out of your whole heart (etc.) Matthew 16:18 (L5/B18): eic i naves Trj 7thrpa obco8o,urjo-o) upon this rock I will build ... Matthew 28:19 (L6/B3): zavTa Tee all the nations ...

(b) In the Predicative Post Position Mark 10:5 (L5/B16): evT&Mv TonjTriv .. this commandment Matthew 3:9 (L5/1317): ... klc nOiv AiBcov TatjToyv .. out of these stones

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 95

7.6 SUPPLETIVES, AND OTHER VERBS OF THE SECOND AORIST

7.61 A number of Greek verbs are incomplete, in that they cannot be used in all tenses, because in some tenses the expected forms do not exist. These verbs are referred to as "defective" in those tenses. What happens in such cases is that forms from some quite different verbs fill the gaps.

7.62 We have defective verbs in English, and we also fill the gaps from other verbs in a similar way. Consider the following: "See how God has answered prayer in the past, and believe that he will answer prayer in the future also; see what wonders God has wrought in the past, and believe that he will _____ wonders in the future also." What is the future tense of "wrought" needed to fill the gap? There is no such future tense in use, so we have to borrow from another verb, perhaps "do", or "work" or "perform". Similarly, what are the infinitives of "can" and "will"? We have to borrow from other verbs and say, "to be able to" and "to intend to" or "to be about to". English has formed the tense system of some verbs from different roots: e.g., "go" is defective (it is not acceptable to say "he goed"), and has taken as its past tense "went", which is actually the past tense of the verb "wend".

7.63 Verbs which join together forms from different roots in this way are called suppletives. There seven suppletives used in the New Testament:

	Meaning	Present Active	Future Active	Aorist Active	Perfect Active	Perfect Midd/Passive	Aorist Passive
1.	take/choose	αἱρέω
2.	come	ἔρχομαι
3.	eat	ἐσθίω
4.	say/speak	λέγω/φημί
5.	see	ὁράω
6.	run	τρέχω
7.	carry/bring	φέρω

† Note the rough breathing on these three forms: this is explained in #C8.73.

7.64 In the New Testament both A,eyco and Orl,ui occur only in the present and imperfect, and On yi found only in these four forms: Present, 077 jai, "I say"; Ono-iv, "he says"; Oao- iv, "they say"; Imperfect, 47-7, "he said". (These four forms occur altogether 70 times in the New Testament, EOrj --,nrig by far the most common.) The gap for both verbs for other tenses is filled by Spew, ebrov, All these words, originally different verbs, have the same root meaning of "say/speak/tell", - are used to supplete each other. Similarly for the other suppletives.

7.65 NOTE that all seven suppletives are Second Conjugation verbs (that is, they have second • rist forms, indicated by the -ov ending). Two verbs (aipeco and Oepco) are shown as having first • rist alternatives, and also throv and Et8ov can have forms in the New Testament with first aorist -dings (though without the -a- phoneme of the punctiliar morph; see #A3.28). In the New stament there are two alternative forms of the future used for aipeco and its compounds.

7.66 For Second Conjugation verbs, their verb stem is their aorist stem, and (except for ayes and -,,o)) they add a durative morph to form their present stem. A fuller explanation of verb formation Ill be given in due course (#10.2), and all 34 Second Conjugation verbs which occur in the New - tament are listed in #C2. However, the 15 more frequent and more important of these should be ,ted now. The Principal Parts (see #10.3) for these are:

96 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

Meaning	Present Active	Future Active	Aorist Active	Perfect Active	Perfect Midd/Passive	Aorist Passive
lead	ἄγω	ἄξω	ἤγαγον	(ἦχα)	ἦγμαι	ἤχθην
sin	ἁμαρτάνω	ἁμαρτήσω	ἥμαρτον	ἡμάρτηκα	(ἡμάρτημαι)	(ἡμαρτήθην)
throw	βάλλω	βαλέω	ἔβαλον	βέβληκα	βέβλημαι	ἐβλήθην
become	γίνομαι	γενήσομαι	ἐγενόμην	γέγονα	γεγένημαι	ἐγενήθην
find	εὑρίσκω	εὑρήσω	εὗρον	εὕρκα	εὕρημαι	εὑρέθην
have	ἔχω	ἕξω	ἔσχον	ἔσχηκα	—	—
die	(ἀπο)θνῄσκω	-θανέομαι	-ἔθανον	τέθνηκα	—	—
take	λαμάνω	λήμψομαι	ἔλαβον	εἴληφα	εἴλημμαι	ἐλήμφθην
leave	λείπω	λείψω	ἔλιπον	(λέλοιπα)	λέλειμμαι	ἐλείφθην
learn	μανθάνω	μαθήσομαι	ἔμαθον	μεμάθηκα	—	—
suffer	πάσχω	—	ἔπαθον	πέπονθα	—	—
drink	πίνω	πίομαι	ἔπιον	πέπωκα	πέπομαι	ἐπόθην
fall	πίπτω	πεσέομαι	ἔπεσον	πέπτωκα	—	—
bear	τίκτω	τέξομαι	ἔτεκον	τέτοχα	τέτεγμαι	ἐτέχθην
flee	φεύγω	φεύξομαι	ἔφυγον	πέφευγα	—	—

† Note the rough breathing on this form: this is explained in #E2.85.

The preposition ἀπο- is usually prefixed to θνῄσκω. For the other words listed, a form in brackets is one which does not occur in the New Testament but is worthy of note.

7.67 NOTE that where the stem of a word ends in a labial, the -κ- of the perfect active morph combines with this labial and gives -φ- (as in εἶληφα), and similarly this -κ- combines with a palatal at the end of the stem to give -χ- (as in ἦχα). Some perfects take the -α- ending direct, without the -κ- phoneme — see #7.8, below.

7.68 These patterns are not given for learning, but for you to look through so that you begin to become familiar with the kinds of changes that occur in a word. (When you encounter one of these forms, your Grammatical Analysis will remind you of the lexical form of that word.)

7.69 Once the first person singular of a flexion (the flexion form) is known, the remaining forms of that flexion will all conjugate regularly, on the pattern of λύω.

7.7 THE THIRD AORIST, AND THE THIRD CONJUGATION

7.71 THE FIRST AND SECOND AORISTS: So far we have met two ways of forming and conjugating the aorist active — adding the punctiliar morph -σα-, and then conjugating as for λύω (#4.21) and, secondly, adding the neutral morph -ε/ο- and conjugating as for ἔβαλον (#3.81).

7.72 THIRD AORIST ACTIVE: There is also a third aorist active pattern of conjugation, without any difference in meaning (#3.65). This pattern is followed by a small but important group of verbs: they add a third set of endings (slightly different from the other two) directly to the verb root, lengthening the final vowel of the root if it is short. Note that in this paradigm the 3rd person singular pronoun ending is ∅ (zero), and that it is in fact the absence of any other ending that is what is significant for indicating the person and number of this form.

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 97

7.73

Lexical form: Root:		ἵστημι (stand) στα-	βαίνω (go) -βα-	γινώσκω (know) γνο-	δύνω (sink) δυ-
AORIST ACTIVE:	Ending
SINGULAR 1	-ν	ἔστην	-ἔβην	ἔγνων	ἔδυν
2	-ς	ἔστης	-ἔβης	ἔγνως	ἔδυς
3	∅	ἔστη	-ἔβη	ἔγνω	ἔδυ
PLURAL 1	-μεν	ἔστημεν	-ἔβημεν	ἔγνωμεν	ἔδυμεν
2	-τε	ἔστητε	-ἔβητε	ἔγνωτε	ἔδυτε
3	-σαν	ἔστησαν	-ἔβησαν	ἔγνωσαν	ἔδυσαν

ἵστημι is one of the most complex of New Testament verbs, with one set of tenses having transitive meaning, "to cause [something] to stand", and another set of its tenses having intransitive meaning, "to take a stand". Fuller details are given in #C3.87.)

7.74 THIRD AORIST MIDDLE: Most third aorist verbs do not use forms in the Middle Voice. Those that do take the same pronoun endings as the first aorist (λύω) forms, but once again they add them directly to the verb root. Thus ἐθέμην (from τίθημι), ἐδόμην (from δίδωμι). (For the full flexion, see #C6.)

7.75 THIRD AORIST PASSIVE: In the Passive Voice third aorist verbs add the passive morph θε- (which lengthens to -θη-) directly to their root and then again take the same Third Con-ization endings as given above for the active (#7.73). It is to be noted that λύω (and all First and and Conjugation verbs) follow the Third Conjugation pattern in the passive (compare the passive of λύω, #6.50, with the following Table). That is to say, all verbs are Third Conjugation n the Aorist Passive.

AORIST PASSIVE:	S1	ἐστάθην	-ἐβάθην	ἐγνώσθην†	ἐδύην‡
	2	ἐστάθης	-ἐβάθης	ἐγνώσθης	ἐδύης
	3	ἐστάθη	-ἐβάθη	ἐγνώσθη	ἐδύη
	P1	ἐστάθημεν	-ἐβάθημεν	ἐγνώσθημεν	ἐδύημεν
	2	ἐστάθητε	-ἐβάθητε	ἐγνώσθητε	ἐδύητε
	3	ἐστάθησαν	-ἐβάθησαν	ἐγνώσθησαν	ἐδύησαν

† In this flexion (and in the perfect middle/passive and the future passive) the lexal -γνω- has the allomorph form -γνωσ- (see #C8.91).

‡ This is a direct flexion passive without -θ- (see #7.8).

7.76 THIRD CONJUGATION: The third aorist is thus a third way of conjugating the aorist, that is, a Third Conjugation. Third Conjugation verbs form their present stem, like the Second Conjugation, by adding a durative morph to their verb stem. But -βαίνω, γινώσκω and δύνω have then taken the First Conjugation ending -ω, and they conjugate their present tense on a First Conjugation pattern. However, verbs ending in -μι (like ἵστημι) follow a distinctive (that is to say, Third Conjugation) pattern of conjugating their present and imperfect tenses.

7.77 THIRD CONJUGATION PRESENT: This conjugation (shown here for five representative -μι verbs) is:

98 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

Root:		στα- (stand)	δυνα- (can)	θε- (place)	δο- (give)	δεικ- (show)
PRESENT ACTIVE
SINGULAR	1	ἵστημι	(none -	τίθημι	δίδωμι	δείκνυμι
	2	ἵστης	deponent	τίθης	δίδως	δείκνυς
	3	ἵστησι(ν)	verb)	τίθησι(ν)	δίδωσι(ν)	δείκνυσι(ν)
PLURAL	1	ἵσταμεν		τίθεμεν	δίδομεν	δείκνυμεν
	2	ἵστατε		τίθετε	δίδοτε	δείκνυτε
	3	ἱστᾶσι(ν)		τιθέασι(ν)	διδόασιν	δεικνύασι(ν)
PRESENT MIDDLE
SINGULAR	1	ἵσταμαι	δύναμαι	τίθεμαι	δίδομαι	δείκνυμαι
	2	ἵστασαι	δύνασαι	τίθεσαι	δίδοσαι	δείκνυσαι
	3	ἵσταται	δύναται	τίθεται	δίδοται	δείκνυται
PLURAL	1	ἱστάμεθα	δυνάμεθα	τιθέμεθα	διδόμεθα	δεικνύμεθα
	2	ἵστασθε	δύνασθε	τίθεσθε	δίδοσθε	δείκνυσθε
	3	ἵστανται	δύνανται	τίθενται	δίδονται	δείκνυνται
IMPERFECT ACTIVE		ἵστην	-	ἐτίθην	ἐδίδουν	ἐδείκνυν
IMPERFECT MIDDLE		ἱστάμην	ἐδυνάμην	ἐτιθέμην	ἐδιδόμην	ἐδεικνύμην

7.78 NOTE: (a) The pronoun endings of the Third Conjugation Present Middle are the same as those taken by the perfect of First Conjugation verbs (see λέλυμαι, #6.25), and the endings of the Third Conjugation Imperfect Middle are the same as those taken by the pluperfect of First Conjugation verbs (see #C1.12); (b) The Third Conjugation Imperfect Active takes the same endings as the Third Aorist Active (#7.73); (c) The Imperfect flexions are set out in full in #C6.3; (d) δύναμαι is deponent; its imperfect (usually ἐδυνάμην, but occurring seven times as ἠδυνάμην, with double augment — see #4.62), follows ἱστάμην; (e) Three other important Third Conjugation deponents are κάθημαι "I sit down", κεῖμαι "I lie down", and -ἵημι, "I send" (which conjugates like τίθημι, but only occurs in the New Testament in compounds, notably ἀφίημι); (f) For the present and imperfect passive: use middle forms (#6.50, #6.51).

7.79 Many of the forms in the above flexions are never actually found in the New Testament, but are included to show clearly the pattern of conjugating. A fuller explanation of verb formation will be given in due course (#10.2), and all 36 Third Conjugation verbs which occur in the New Testament are listed in #C3.

7.8 DIRECT FLEXIONS

7.81 Some Greek verbs form one of their tenses without the use of the usual consonant in the aspect or voice morph. Two verbs form their future (deponent) without a future morph: φάγομαι (from ἐσθίω "I eat" — see #7.63); πίομαι (from πίνω "I drink" — see #C4.2). Nine verbs form their perfect active without either aspirating the stem consonant or adding -κ-, as the case may be; for example, γέγονα, from γίνομαι "I become" (see #C4.3 for the full list). Thirty verbs can form their aorist passive without taking the -θ- of the passive morph; for example, ἠγγέλην, not ἠγγέλθην, from ἀγγέλλω "I announce" (see #C4.4 for the full list). These flexions which add the next vowel directly to the lexal without the usual consonant of the morph can be termed "direct flexions".

7.82 Among the direct flexions of the perfect, there is one which requires special comment: οἶδα, from the same root, ἰδ-, as εἶδον, "I saw". It is:

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 99

		Perfect	Pluperfect	Subjunctive	Imperative	Infinitive	Participle
SINGULAR	1	οἶδα	ᾔδειν	εἰδῶ		εἰδέναι	m. εἰδώς
	2	οἶδας	ᾔδεις	εἰδῇς	ἴσθι		f. εἰδυῖα
	3	οἶδε(ν)	ᾔδει	εἰδῇ	ἴστω		n. εἰδός
PLURAL	1	οἴδαμεν	ᾔδειμεν	εἰδῶμεν			g. εἰδότος
	2	οἴδατε	ᾔδειτε	εἰδῆτε	ἴστε
	3	οἴδασι(ν)	ᾔδεισαν	εἰδῶσι(ν)	ἴστωσαν

This perfect form has the present meaning, "I know", etc., and the pluperfect is the past tense, "I knew".

7.83 Notice the second-last morph in the pluperfect flexion, -ει-. This identifies the form as pluperfect. Thus it is a specifier morph, and occupies Slot 8 of a verb's nine morph slots. NOTE that on to this specifier morph the pluperfect adds the endings (Slot 9) of the third aorist #7.73).

7.84 Because the specifier morph -ει- identifies the pluperfect in an unambiguous way, some riters of koinē Greek considered an initial augment unnecessary for the pluperfect tense, and i\mitted it for many words in the pluperfect.

7.85 A similar situation exists for another word: εἴωθα (which is as rare as οἶδα is common) is so a perfect form that has present meaning, "I am accustomed", and comes from an original present form (ἔθω) that has been obsolete since Homer's time. Again like οἶδα, it has a pluperfect form εἰώθειν (which follows the paradigm of ᾔδειν) that has simple past meaning, "I was accustomed". The neuter perfect participle εἰωθός occurs with the meaning "custom" (compare perfect participle εἰδώς from οἶδα).

7.86 For the paradigm of λύω, showing the regular pluperfect flexion with the perfective active morph -κ-, see #C1.11.

ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON SEVEN

1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are:

    18. Third Conjugation Aorist Active (#7.73): ἔστην (from ἵστημι), and ἔγνων (from γινώσκω)

    19. Third Conjugation Present Active (#7.77): ἵστημι and δίδωμι

    20. Third Conjugation Present Middle (#7.77): ἵσταμαι and δίδομαι

2(a) LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION: Aim to understand how the other flexions of the Third Conjugation are formed: NOTE how the Third Conjugation Aorist Middle is formed by adding the regular aorist middle endings (as for λύω) to the verb root, while the Third Conjugation Aorist Passive flexion is formed from the verb root by adding the passive morph and then the third aorist endings.

(b) LEARN which are the seven verbs which are suppletives (#7.63), and NOTE the suppletive forms which are used in their other tenses: these are used in the Sentences (below).

3. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson.

100 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

4. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it.

5. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 7 (for "Lesson 7") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some will appear in several of this Lesson's Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.)

6. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12.

PREPOSITIONS

*σύν

(+dat)

with, together with

χωρίς

(+gen)

without, apart from

A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK

(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.)

	SENTENCES	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
A1.	"I do not know this man." (MARK 14:71)	Use *οἶδα, "I know" (#7.82)
A2.	It has been written, "You (plural) shall be holy, because I (emphatic) [am] holy. (1 PETER 1:16)
A3.	Night is coming, when no-one is able to work.	I am able: *δύναμαι; (JOHN 9:4) work: ἐργάζομαι (dep.)
A4.	Do you not know that you are God's temple and the Spirit of God dwells in you? (1 CORINTHIANS 3:16)	temple: ναός, -οῦ, ὁ; dwell: οἰκέω
A5.	The workman [is] worthy of his pay. (LUKE 10:7)	workman: ἐργάτης, -ου, ὁ; pay: μισθός, -ου, ὁ
A6.	I wrote these things to you in order that you might know that you have eternal life. (1 JOHN 5:13)	in order that: *ἵνα (+ subjv); might know: see #7.82
A7.	I have not come to call righteous ones but sinners into repentance. (LUKE 5:32)	righteous: *δίκαιος, -αία, -ον; sinner, sinful: ἁμαρτωλός, -όν

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 101

B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A superscript number (as in aor²) is used to indicate a Second or Third Conjugation verb (as the case may be).

	SELECTION	NOTES AND NEW WORDS
B1.	καὶ ... εἰσῆλθον εἰς τὴν ἁγίαν πόλιν, καὶ ἐνεφανίσθησαν πολλοῖς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 27:53)	ἐν-ε-φανίσ-θη-σαν: 3pl aor. pass. from ἐμφανίζω, cause to appear clearly, make known, (pass.: appear)
B2.	Καὶ τῷ ἀγγέλῳ τῆς ἐν Λαοδικείᾳ ἐκκλησίας γράψον, Τάδε λέγει ὁ Ἀμήν, ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς καὶ ἀληθινός, ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ· Οἶδά σου τὰ ἔργα. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 3:14-15)	Λαοδίκεια, -ας, Laodicea; *ἐκκλησία, ἡ: church; τάδε: #7.14; *ἀμήν: amen; ὁ Ἀμήν: the one who is true; μάρτυς, -υρος, ὁ: witness, martyr; *ἀρχή, ruler, beginning (both meanings apply here); *οἶδα: know, #7.82
B3.	Καὶ τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν, Ἱερουσαλὴμ καινήν, εἶδον καταβαίνουσαν ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ, ἡτοιμασμένην ὡς νύμφην κεκοσμημένην τῷ ἀνδρὶ αὐτῆς. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 21:2)	Ἰερουσαλήμ, ἡ (indecl.): Jerusalem; καινός -ή -όν: new; *εἶδον: #7.63; *καταβαίνω: come down (acc. sg fem. ptc, agreeing with πόλις); ἡτοιμασμένην: having been prepared (perf ptc); νύμφη, -ης, ἡ: bride; κεκοσμημένην: having been adorned (acc sg fern pf ptc); *ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, ὁ: husband, man (see #5.44)
B4.	ὧν οὐκ ἦν ἄξιος ὁ κόσμος (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΒΡΑΙΟΥΣ 11:38)
B5.	ὁ γὰρ ναὸς τοῦ θεοῦ ἅγιός ἐστιν, οἵτινές ἐστε ὑμεῖς. (ΠΡΟΣ ΚΟΡΙΝΘΙΟΥΣ Α, 3:17)	οἵτινες: #7.15; see #D6.1 and #D6.6
B6.	Ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγαλεῖα ὁ δυνατός, καὶ ἅγιον τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 1:49)	μεγαλεῖα: #5.75; ὁ δυνατός: the Almighty; Absence of verb "to be": #7.54(e)
B7.	Λέγει γὰρ ἡ γραφή, Βοῦν ἀλοῶντα οὐ φιμώσεις· καί, Ἄξιος ὁ ἐργάτης τοῦ μισθοῦ αὐτοῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΤΙΜΟΘΕΟΝ Α, 5:18)	*γραφή, -ῆς, ἡ: scripture; βοῦς, βοός, ὁ: ox, #5.20; ἀλοῶντα: masc. acc. sg ptc from ἀλοάω, thresh; φιμόω: muzzle
B8.	ὁ μὲν νόμος ἅγιος, καὶ ἡ ἐντολὴ ἁγία καὶ δικαία καὶ ἀγαθή. Τὸ οὖν ἀγαθὸν ἐμοὶ γέγονεν θάνατος; (ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ 7:12-13)	*ἐντολή, commandment, instruction; *ἀγαθός -ή -όν: good
B9.	Καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ τῶν νεκρῶν οὐκ ἔζησαν ἄχρι τελεσθῇ τὰ χίλια ἔτη. Αὕτη ἡ ἀνάστασις ἡ πρώτη. Μακάριος καὶ ἅγιος ὁ ἔχων μέρος ἐν τῇ ἀναστάσει τῇ πρώτῃ· (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 20:5-6)	*λοιπός -ή -όν: remainder, remaining, rest; *ζάω: live; ἄχρι: until; τελεσθῇ: 3sg aor. pass. subjv of τελέω, end, complete, finish; χίλιοι -αι -α: thousand; ἔτος, -ους, τό: year
B10.	Ἔστιν παιδάριον ἓν ὧδε, ὃ ἔχει πέντε ἄρτους κριθίνους καὶ δύο ὀψάρια· ἀλλὰ ταῦτα τί ἐστιν εἰς τοσούτους; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:9)	παιδάριον, -ου, τό: a lad, young boy; πέντε: five; κρίθινος, -η, -ον: barley, made of barley; ὀψάριον, -ου, τό: a (small) fish; τοσοῦτος, -αύτη, -οῦτο(ν): so much/ so many, #7.13
B11.	Μακάριοι οἱ καθαροὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ· ὅτι αὐτοὶ τὸν θεὸν ὄψονται. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:8)	καθαρός: clean, pure; ὄψονται: #7.63

102 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

B12.	Καὶ λέγουσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ, Πόθεν ἡμῖν ἐν ἐρημίᾳ ἄρτοι τοσοῦτοι, ὥστε χορτάσαι ὄχλον τοσοῦτον; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 15:33)	τοσοῦτος #7.13; χορτάζω: feed, satisfy with food; *ὄχλος, -ου, ὁ: (a) crowd
B13.	Ὅστις δὲ ὑψώσει ἑαυτόν, ταπεινωθήσεται· καὶ ὅστις ταπεινώσει ἑαυτόν, ὑψωθήσεται. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 23:12)	*ὅστις: #7.15; ὑψόω: exalt; *ἑαυτόν: #6.93: ταπεινόω: humble
B14.	Ἐγὼ ἐλήλυθα ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τοῦ πατρός μου , καὶ οὐ λαμβάνετέ με · ἐὰν ἄλλος ἔλθῃ ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τῷ ἰδίῳ, ἐκεῖνον λήψεσθε (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 5:43)	ἐλήλυθα: #7.63; ἔλθῃ: 3sg aor2 subjv of *ἦλθον, were to come; *ἴδιος, -ία, -ον: one's own, his own; ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τῷ ἰδίῳ: #7.51(b); λήμψεσθε: 2pl fut. (#7.66) from *λαμβάνω, receive
B15.	ἀλλὰ λέγει αὐτῷ, Ὕπαγε εἰς τὸν οἶκόν σου πρὸς τοὺς σούς, καὶ ἀνάγγειλον αὐτοῖς ὅσα σοι ὁ κύριος πεποίηκεν, καὶ ἠλέησέν σε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 5:19-20)	σούς: from σός, -ή, -όν, L2/B25; with the article: the ones who are yours (i.e., your family and friends); ἀνάγγειλον: impv aor¹ of ἀναγγέλλω, liquid verb (#4.57); ὅσα: #7.11, neut pl., how many things, i.e., all that ...; ἠλέησεν 3sg aor. from ἐλεάω, have mercy, compassion (note the significance of the aor. here and perf of ποιέω, both referring to the one act)
B16.	Καὶ τοιαύταις παραβολαῖς πολλαῖς ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς τὸν λόγον, καθὼς ἠδύναντο ἀκούειν· χωρὶς δὲ παραβολῆς οὐκ ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς· κατ’ ἰδίαν δὲ τοῖς μαθηταῖς αὐτοῦ ἐπέλυεν πάντα. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 4:33-34)	*Totof)w; rota6T77, Totarov. of such a kind, #7.13; *KapaPo2M, -fic, 4: parable; 7)81jvavro: 3pl impf dep. of the Third Conjugation *513valuat, #7.78, note the double augment (#4.62); dcutjetv: here: understand; Kat' i8lay: on their own, privately (from *i6iog); brt2,1")co: explain
B17.	Καὶ συνάγονται οἱ ἀπόστολοι πρὸς τὸν Ἰησοῦν, καὶ ἀπήγγειλαν αὐτῷ πάντα, καὶ ὅσα ἐποίησαν καὶ ὅσα ἐδίδαξαν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 6:30)	*avvayco: gather together (mid/pass., come together, meet); *durouToZoc-, -ov, 6: apostle; oo-a: #7.11; k8164ay: 3p1 aor. of *St8(itax-co, teach
B18.	Ἀλλὰ λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι καὶ Ἠλίας ἐλήλυθεν, καὶ ἐποίησαν αὐτῷ ὅσα ἠθέλησαν, καθὼς γέγραπται ἐπ’ αὐτόν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 9:13)	kill-M.7)9El'; #7.63; oo-a: #7.11; fi9EADv: 3pl impf from *Oato, with double augment (#4.62); yeypaIrrat: 3sg pf pass. from *ypotOw (#6.25, #6.50, #10.45)
B19.	Εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς τοὺς μαθητάς, Ἐλεύσονται ἡμέραι ὅτε ἐπιθυμήσετε μίαν τῶν ἡμερῶν τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἰδεῖν, καὶ οὐκ ὄψεσθε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 17:22)	Oi-eljo-ovrat: #7.63; hrteviieco: strongly desire, long (for); play: #5.76; 1(5Efy: aor2 inf. (#4.48, #7.63); 61yea9E: #7.63
B20.	Καὶ ἐμαρτύρησεν Ἰωάννης λέγων ὅτι Τεθέαμαι τὸ πνεῦμα καταβαῖνον ὡς περιστερὰν ἐξ οὐρανοῦ, καὶ ἔμεινεν ἐπ’ αὐτόν. Κἀγὼ οὐκ ᾔδειν αὐτόν· ἀλλ’ ὁ πέμψας με βαπτίζειν ἐν ὕδατι, ἐκεῖνός μοι εἶπεν, Ἐφ’ ὃν ἂν ἴδῃς τὸ πνεῦμα καταβαῖνον καὶ μένον ἐπ’ αὐτόν, οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ βαπτίζων ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ. Κἀγὼ ἑώρακα, καὶ μεμαρτύρηκα ὅτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:32-34)	*papTypeco: testify, bear witness; -reeleaRat: lsg pf of Oedeopat (dep.), look at, notice, observe (re reduplication, see #E4.33); 7repurrepet, ag, rj: dove, pigeon; 1.1E1VEV: 3sg aor of *pew°, rest, remain, abide; 756etv. #7.82; 6 ,reytifac-; masc. nom. sg ptc (meaning, the one who sent), from *7repirco, send; Yorig: 2sg aor2 subjv, from *th5ov (#7.63); kcopaKa: #7.63

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 103

B21.	Λέγει ἡ μήτηρ αὐτοῦ τοῖς διακόνοις, Ὅ τι ἂν λέγῃ ὑμῖν, ποιήσατε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 2.5)	διάκονος, -ου, ὁ and ἡ: servant, deacon; ὅ τι: neut. from *ὅστις, #7.15
B22.	Οἱ πατέρες ἡμῶν τὸ μάννα ἔφαγον ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ, καθώς ἐστιν γεγραμμένον, Ἄρτον ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς φαγεῖν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:31)	μάννα, τό (indecl.): manna; ἔφαγον: #7.63; γεγραμμένον: pf middlpass. ptc from *γράφω; with ἐστιν: it stands written; ἔ-δω-κ-εν 3sg aor³ in -κα (#E4.77), from *δίδωμι, φαγεῖν: aor² inf., #7.63
B23.	Ὅτι ἐγὼ ἐξ ἐμαυτοῦ οὐκ ἐλάλησα· ἀλλ’ ὁ πέμψας με πατήρ, αὐτός μοι ἐντολὴν ἔδωκεν, τί εἴπω καὶ τί λαλήσω. Καὶ οἶδα ὅτι ἡ ἐντολὴ αὐτοῦ ζωὴ αἰώνιός ἐστιν· ἃ οὖν λαλῶ ἐγώ, καθὼς εἴρηκέν μοι ὁ πατήρ, οὕτως λαλῶ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:49-50)	ἐμαυτοῦ: #6.93; ὁ πέμψας: see L7/B20; ἔ-δω-κ-εν: 3sg aor³ of *δίδωμι; *οἶδα: #7.82; εἴρηκεν: #7.63
B24.	Καὶ ὤφθη αὐτοῖς Ἠλίας σὺν Μωσῇ, καὶ ἦσαν συλλαλοῦντες τῷ Ἰησοῦ. Καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς ὁ Πέτρος λέγει τῷ Ἰησοῦ, Ῥαββί, καλόν ἐστιν ἡμᾶς ὧδε εἶναι· καὶ ποιήσωμεν σκηνὰς τρεῖς, σοὶ μίαν, καὶ Μωσῇ μίαν, καὶ Ἠλίᾳ μίαν. Οὐ γὰρ ᾔδει τί λαλήσει· ἦσαν γὰρ ἔκφοβοι. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 9:4-6)	ὤφθη: #7.63 [pass. means, (he) appeared]; συλλαλέω: converse, speak together; ἀποκριθείς masc nom sg pass ptc of *ἀποκρίνομαι (dep.), answer, respond; ᾔδει: #7.82; ἀποκριθῇ: 3sg aor. pass subjv; ἔκφοβος -ον: frightened, terrified

SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

B25. JOHN 4:39-45		Do the translation of this passage from your Greek New Testament as an exercise in class, using your Grammatical Analysis.
B26. MATTHEW 18:3-5 B27. MARK 10:10-16 B28. JOHN 1:6-13	⎧ ⎨ ⎩	Translate these passages from your Greek New Testament, making the fullest use of your Grammatical Analysis.

If Time permits, read a Commentary on the Greek text of Selections B25—B28.